政治委婉语修辞应用

AbstractEuphemismisderivedfromtaboo,whichisusedtodescribesomethinginappropriatetotalkaboutdirectlyincommunication.Itisaculturalphenomenonaswellasarhetoricaldevice.Itisalsoaproperlanguagepatternpeoplecreatedinsocialcommunicationinordertomakethecommunicationeffective.Itplaysanimportantroleinourdailylife.Themostimportantsocialfunctionsofeuphemismareevasivefunction,politefunctionandcosmeticfunction.Politicaleuphemismisatypeofeuphemism,soithasthefeatureofeuphemism.Politicaleuphemismisusedwidelybypoliticians,throughwhichtheycandelivertheirrealinformationinamildwaywithoutanyharshness.Thisarticlewillmakeanintroductionoftheorigin,socialfunctionsandtheapplicationofeuphemisms,andthendiscussrespectivelythepoliticaleuphemismsusedininternalandinternationalaspectandtherhetoricalapplicationofpoliticaleuphemisms.

KeyWordssocialfunction;politicaleuphemism;rhetoricalapplication

委婉语起源于民俗禁忌，人们在交际中用来描述不宜直言的人或事物，既是一种修辞手法，又是一种文化现象。委婉语又是人们在社会交际中为谋求理想的交际效果而创造的一种适当的语言形式。它在生活中发挥着十分重要的交际功能。最主要的有避讳功能，礼貌功能，掩饰、美化功能。政治委婉语是委婉语的一个范畴，沿袭了普通委婉语的特征，广为政治家们所用。它使政治家们得以一种暖和、不带任何刺激性的表达方式传递其真正的信息。本文将从委婉语的起源、社会功能、修辞入手，分别阐述政治委婉语的国际国内使用情况和政治委婉语修辞应用。

社会功能;政治委婉语;修辞应用

1.Introduction

1.1Thedefinitionofeuphemism

TheEnglishword“euphemism”derivedfromtheGreekword“euphemismos”，whichmeans“fairspeech”.Theprefix“eu-”means“good，soundingwell”，and“pheme”means“saying”or“speech”.Sotheliteralmeaningof“euphemism”is“tospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner.”InthebookofModernLinguistics,itisdefinedas“amild,indirectorlessoffensivewordorexpressionsubstitutedwhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlydirectoroffensive.”1

1.2Theoriginofeuphemism

Totracethebeginningofeuphemisms,wecan’tneglect“taboo”.Inprimitivesociety,peoplecouldn’texplainsuchthingsasdeath,ailmentsandsomesupernaturalphenomena.Theyalsohadconfusionbetweenthenamesofthingsandthethingsthemselves:Thenameisviewedasanextensionofthethings.Justastheidiomsays“Speakofthedevilandheappears.”Naturallythewordsorthephrasesrelatedtotheseunexplainablethingsbecametaboos.

Forordinarypeople,thesafestwaytoavoidmentioningthesethingsthattheyhavetomentioninmanycircumstancesistouseanothername---euphemismstoreplacethetruenameofsuchathing.Inmanycultures，thenamesofgodsanddevilsaretaboos.Inordertoavoidmentioningthemdirectly,peopleuse“goshorgolly”insteadofGodand“dickenoroldNick”insteadofthedevil.Therefore，wecansafelystatethat“theexistenceoftaboowordsortabooideasstimulatesthecreationofeuphemisms”.

Inourmodernsociety,however,thereligiousandsuperstitiousrelicsstillexist.Buttoalargerextent，euphemismismostlymotivatedbypeople’sfearofdeath.Thusitisnowonderthatsuchalargenumberofeuphemismsabout“death”exist:depart,decease，passaway，etc.

Inshort，euphemismoriginatesfromtaboo.Becauseofthepsychologyoffear，peopledarenotorwouldrathernotcallsomethingbynamedirectly.Ifsuchunpleasantthingshavetobementioned，peopleworkoutindirecttermstoreplacethem.Thuseuphemismscomeintobeing.Usingeuphemismsgivespeopleafeelingthattheyaresomewhatdistantfromwhattheyfear，andresortingtoeuphemismsseemstobeaguaranteeoftheirsafety，happiness，healthandgoodluck.

1.3Thesocialfunctionsofeuphemism

Fromtheoriginofeuphemism,wecanseethattheoriginalfunctionofeuphemismistobeusedintalkingabouttaboos.Inourdailylife,therearesometabooedthingsthatarebelievedtobedangeroustocertainindividuals,ortothesocietyasawhole,ortobedisgustingandunpleasantandcausefear.Suchtaboothingsincludedisease,disabilities,death,sex,bodyexcretionandbodyeliminationprocess,etc.Peoplecanuseeuphemismstotalkaboutwhatcannotbetalkedabout.

Withthedevelopmentofoursociety,somenewfunctionscameintobeingduringthecommunicationinthecivilizedsociety.Inourdailycommunication,besides,tabootopics,thereareothersensitiveandunpleasanttopicswhichwedonotfeelliketalkingaboutdirectly,such

asoccupation,appearance,formofaddress,socialstatus,poverty,murder,andsoon.Ifwetalkaboutsuchthingsdirectly,wemayfeelormakeothersfeelembarrassedorunhappy.Suchpsychologyincommunicationresultsinanotherfunctionofeuphemism,thatistoshowpolitenessandconcealfeelings.Forinstance,unemploymentandpovertyareverydreadfulthingsnowadays.Inthemodernwayofthinking,tomentionsomebody’sunemploymentandpovertyistospeakpejorativelyofhiscondition.Sothereplacementsforthemkeepappearing.Themiserablefactofunemploymentissaidtobe“involuntarilyleisured”,“betweenjobs”,etc.Thepoorbecomes“theunderprivileged”,and“thedisadvantaged”.InChinese,wereferto失业as下岗，炒鱿鱼；被裁掉as给优化掉，etc.Andthepooraredescriedas拮据，手头紧，手头不便，囊中羞涩，etc.

Fromtheaboveexampleswecanseethateuphemismscanhelptokeepusmoredistantfromtheunpleasantreality,orinotherwords,theharshtruthhasbeenconcealedtoacertainextent,thatistosay,inreality，euphemismsarealsooftenusedtocoverthetruth.Theeuphemismsrelatedtopoliticsgivenexcellentexplanationforthis.Forexample,theWatergateScandalmadepeoplemoresensitivetopoliticallanguage.Itbecamenecessarytouseeuphemismstomakethesensitivepoliticalconceptssoftenedandvague.Hence，the“Caperincident”substituted“phonestaps”，“gothehangoutroad”for“tellthetruth”，and“stonewall”for“flatlyrefusetocooperate”.2GeorgeOrwellonceillustratedthebitterironyofsuchlinguisticphenomenon，“politicallanguage…isdesignedtomakeliessoundtruthfulandmurderrespectable，andtogiveanappearanceofsoliditytopurewind.”

Basedontheabovedescriptionsaboutthesocialfunctionsofeuphemisms，wecanmakethegeneralizationsasfollows:

(1)Euphemismsnotonlyhelpthespeakeravoidtalkingaboutthedreadfulorembarrassedthingsdirectly,butalsohelpthespeakerorthelistenerfeelrelaxedtalkingaboutthethingsthatmightprobablymakehim/herappeardisgracedorembarrassedifspokendirectly.

(2)Euphemismsareusedtocoverupthetruenatureofevents,deceivingthepublicwithnice-soundingandpseudo-technicalwork,andinthemeanwhileitalsocanhelpsomepeopleavoidtalkingaboutsensitivethingsdirectlysothattheycanescapetheirdueresponsibility,evenpunishment.

1.4.Rhetoricalapplicationofeuphemism

1.4.1.Thedefinitionofrhetoric

Beforewestudytherhetoricalapplicationofeuphemism，itisnecessarytomakeclearwhatisrhetoric.Rhetoricis“theartofusinglanguageimpressivelyandpersuasively,esp.inpublicspeaking.”(OxfordAdvancedLearner’sEnglish-ChineseDictionary,4thedition.)WhetherSpeakingorwriting，onehastogetoneselfacrosseffectively，i.e.，tobeeloquent，accurate，impressive，persuasiveandexpressive.Thestudyofhowtoexpressoneselfeffectively，generallyspeaking，isthemainconcernofrhetoric.

1.4.2.Rhetoricalapplicationofeuphemism

Whenweuseeuphemisms,wealsohavetothinkabouthowtoexpressourideaseffectively.Soweshouldmakeuseoftherhetoricaldevice.3Therhetoricaldevicesfrequentlyusedareasfollowing:

(i)Metaphor

Withthisfigureofspeech，theeuphemismalwaysseemstoberomanticsothatthestyleofthelanguagemaychangealot.Therearenumerouseuphemisticwordsfor“die”inEnglish.Actuallysomeofthemarevividandinformalmetaphor.Forinstance，“gotohislonghome”,“gotosleepforever”and“ceasetothink”，etc.

(ii)Metonymy

Metonymyisafigureofspeechinwhichthenameofonethingisusedtostandforanotherthing.Thetwothingsinvolvedinametonymyarenotofthesamekindbutarecloselyrelated.Euphemismmakesagooduseofit.Forinstance,somepartofhumanbodyareofteneuphemizedwithawholepartforaveryspecialone,whichisnotsuitabletomentiondirectly,suchas“lowerparts”,or“partbelow”for“secretparts”,“upperparts”for“breasts”,etc.

(iii)Synecdoche

Someeuphemismsareinventedbysynecdoche,atropewhichis“afigurebywhichamorecomprehensivetermisusedforlesscomprehensiveorviceversa;aswholeforpartorpartforwhole,agenusforspeciesorspeciesforgenus,etc.”(OxfordDictionary)Forinstance,“Hehasasmoothtongue,”infact,means,“Heistalkative.”

(iv)Personification

Someunpleasantthingsaregivenhumancharacteristicsorhumannamestoachieveavivideffect.Examples:

(1)Personifiedeuphemismsfordrugs:

BigHarryforheroin，MissEmmaformorphine，

MaryJaneformarijuana，etc.

(2)Personifiedeuphemismsforbathroom:

John(Am.E.)，jakes，SirJohn;

Mrs.Tones，Aunt(e.g.togotoone’sAunt)(usedbyfemaleonly)，etc

(v)Periphrasis

Periphrasis,ascircumlocution,referstoathingnamedinaroundaboutway.Rawsonsuggests“thelongertheeuphemisms,thebetter.”Theyhavemoresyllables,andfrequently,twoormorewordswillbedeployedinplaceofasingleone.Forinstance,“trousers”doesnotsoundwell，so“nethergarments”replacesit.“Fart”istoounpleasanttotheear，sopeoplesayitas“windfrombehind”.

(vi)Understatement

Understatementisafigureofspeechinwhichanideaisdeliberatelyexpressedtooweakly.Itisusedtoplaydownortominimizetheimportanceofsomething.Itisusuallyemployedinthreeways:litotes,meiosisandovertones.Litotesisunderstatementbydenyingthecontraryofthethingbeingaffirmed.Itistheuseofnegativeformforpositiveideaswhenthespeakerwishestoweakenhistoneofcommentonsomething.Forexample,weoftenuse“unwise”insteadof“stupid”;“impolite”insteadof“rude”.

(vii)Irony

Ironyisafigureofspeechinwhichtheintendedmeaningofthewordsusedisthedirectoppositeoftheirusualsense.Forexample,whensomeonehatestheweather,whichspoilshistripandsays,“Whatafineday!”heisironical.

Someintimatefeelingsorbadthingsareexpressedresortingtoirony，afigureofspeechinwhichthemeaningliterallyexpressedistheoppositeofthemeaningindicatedandaimsathumororsarcasmandavoidhurtingothersbydirectexpressions.Incertaincontext，itcanholdthereader’sattentionanddeepenitsimpression，therefore，aPleasanteffectcouldbeachieved.Examples:MinistryofDefenseisinfactreferredto“MinistryofWar”,therealmeaningof“lifeinsurance”is“insurancewhenyouaredead”,and“freedomfighter”issubstitutedfor“terrorists”.

2.Politicaleuphemism

2.1.Introduction

Politicsisafertileareaforthegrowthofeuphemisms，whicharecosmeticinexpressionbutdeceptiveinnature.Euphemismsofthiskindarealwaysusedconsciouslyanddeliberately.Euphemismsusedinpoliticalissuesaremainlyseenintheinternalandinternationalaspects.

2.1.1Internalaspect

Ininternalaspect,politicaleuphemismsareusedforsomesocialproblemssuchaspoverty，unemployment,crimeandracism,andtheactivitiesofthepoliticalorganizationandsoon,whicharecosmetic.

Inordertocovertheproblemsofpovertyandunemployment,etc,thegovernmentcontinuouslycreatedeuphemismsservingforhispoliticalpurpose.Forexample,inAmerica,“thepoor”iscalledas“thedeprived,manofmodestmeans,thelesswelloff”,andthepoorareaas“theinnercity”,etc.And“losejobs”become“betweenjobs”,“fireemployees”become“downsizing”or“RIF(reductioninforce),”lackofjobsecurity”isreferredtoas“jobflexibility”.InBritain,theunemployedcanenjoythehalf-pricefilmticketortheatreticket,onlybecausetheyare“thelessfortunate”.

Whenthewesterncountrieswereinthebeginningof20thcentury,therelationbetweenthelaborersandthecapitalistwasverytense,andstrikebecomeaserioussocialproblem.Inordertocoverthecontradiction,“strike”wasreferredtoas“industrialdispute”,“boycottclasses”as“studentunrest”,“anddrop”as“adjustmentdownward”.4Americaisacountrypoundofitsperfectlawsystem,however,itisalsoacountryfilledwithallkindsofsocialcrime.Inordertoavoidthosedisgracedsayings,euphemismsarefrequentlyused.Forinstance,“steal”iscalledas“tohook,topalm,toworkthehole,towalkawaywith”;“torobbery”isreferredtoas“toclip,toputthearmon,tobreakajug”;“tomurder”isreferredtoas“tocrossout,todisappear,todieinanecktie,togocool”;“punishment”becomes“todropintothebucket,dotime,towalkthelastmile”.5P47Theword“nigger”whichisfullofracialdiscriminationandhasabadconnotationisreplacedby“Negro”andthen“colored”,“black”andnow“Afro-American”.

Somepoliticalorganizationsalsoprefertouseeuphemisms.InAmerica,theactivityoftheFBIorganizationoftenbecriticizedandsatirized.Peopleespeciallydisagreedwiththeirsearchingactivities,whichinvadehumanrights.Inordertocovertheirillegalactivity,theinvestigatorsoftheorganizercreatedandchangedthespeechtheyused,usingaseriesofeuphemisms,suchas“technicaltrespasses,surreptitious,uncontestedphysicalsearches,andwarrantlessinvestigations”,etc,allofwhich,infact,aretheeuphemismof“breakin”.AftertheAmericanpresidentReaganwintheelection,hesetabouttodealwiththecountry’sfinancialproblem.Heappealed“revenueenhancements”.Infact,itis“taxincrease”,whichruncounterto“cuttaxes”hepromisedduringtheelection.Theeuphemismusedherevaguehistrueintentionabstractlyandfuzzily.6

Therearealsosomeotherpoliticaleuphemismsusedtocoverthepoliticalscandals.Forexample,“lie”isreferredtoas“lessthantruthful,prevaricate,inoperative”;“illegal”isreferredtoas“inappropriate”Therearealotofeuphemismsproducedduringthe“Watergatescandal”aboutpresidentNixoninAmericaof20thcentury1970s.Forinstance,“plumber”isreferredtoas“intelligence-stealer”,“eavesdrop”as“intelligence-gathering”,“theschemeofeavesdrop”as“scenario”,andeven“thescandal”became“event”.

Inmodernsociety，socialproblemsarenumerous，soitiswithChina.Toreassureandpacifythepublic，thegovernmentjustmakessuchremarksas“我们绝大多数党员干部是廉洁自律的，这样的人在我们的干部队伍中只是极少数，问题是有的，但成绩是主要的，主流是好的”etc.Fordiplomatictalks，wehavesuchremarksas“双方进行了建设性的会谈，双方就共同关心的问题坦率地交换了意见，总之，双方的会谈是有益的和富有建设性的”etc.Alltheseindicatethatbothsidesarequitefarfromreachingagreementconcerningcertainissues.Thesevagueremarksjustconcealthefactoftruthandservecertainpoliticalpurpose.

Politicaleuphemismalsohaspositivefunction.Ininternalaspect,theuseofpoliticaleuphemismisembodiedinthetalkbetweendifferentparties.Theproperpoliticaleuphemismscanenhancethefriendlyrelationshipandkeepafriendlyatmosphere.Taiwanproblemisatypicalexampleofthiskind.InOctober,1995,whenchairmanJiangZeminwasinterviewedbytheAmericanjournalists,hesaidthat,“我们一贯主张和平统一,‘一国两制’,但是假如台湾岛内分裂主义势力搞‘’我们不排除采取非和平手段的可能性.”The“Anti-secessionLaw”passedin2005,alsoemphasizesthat“必要时将通过’非和平手段’来确保国家的领土完整.”Here,“非和平手段”(non-peacefulmeans)infactisreferredto“war”.Theuseofthesetwopoliticaleuphemismsof“不排除采取非和平手段的可能性”and“必要时将通过’非和平手段’”reflectthatthegovernmentofChinatriedtheirbesttoconsolidatethewholecountrythroughpeacefulway.

2.1.2Internationalaspect

Inthecaseofinternationalaspect,thecosmeticeuphemismsalsocanbeeasilyfoundinpoliticalandmilitaryactivities.Forinstance,“lie”isreferredtoas“terminologicalinexactitude”;“aggression”as“pre-emptiveaction”or“policeaction”;“retreatandtout”as“phasedwithdrawal”;“admitdefeat”as“concedethevictoryto”;“concentrationcamps”as“strategicvillages”or“hamlets”;“bombingandblastingofwholevillages”as“pacificationoftheenemyinfrastructure”or“softeningupofenemyresistance”or“givemassiveairsupport”.Theeuphemismshereareinthetruesenseoftheword“false.”Theyareusedtocoverupthetruenatureofevents,deceivingthepublicwithnice-soundingandpseudo-technicalwords.

Politicaleuphemismsusedinmilitaryactivitycomeintobeingwiththewar.Politiciansinthewesterncountriescalltheinvasivewarusedtotransfertheinternalcontradictionas“preventivewar”or“internationalarmedconflict”;“defeat”as“strategicwithdrawal”;“therefugeetide”duringthewaras“transferofpopulation”.

ThemilitaryactivityofthealliedforcesoftheUSAandBritaininIraqalsoproducedmanypoliticaleuphemisms.Themomentofstartingthewarwascalledas“momentoftruth”;thesloganofthisactionwas“IraqiFreedom”;theillegalandinhumanaggressionbecome“liberation”;“bombing”wascalledas“atargetofopportunity,”thatis,atargetoftheIraqileadership,whichreallymeans“randombombing”.

GovernmentdiscussionoftheVietnamWarwassaturatedwitheuphemisms.Villagerswereburnedandtheinhabitantsimprisoned-thatwere‘pacifications’;saturationbombingwithB-525was‘ordnancedelivery’，destroyingcropswas‘defoliation’;thewaritselfwasnotawarbuta‘conflict’.Theseeuphemismsformaframeworktodeceive，tohidethedirtybusinessofwar.Andexamplesareeverywhere:in1983，aftertheU.S.sentitsarmedforcesintoGrenada，Reaganshowedhisirritationwithreportersattheir‘frequentuseofthewordinvasion.‘This’,hesaid，‘wasarescuemission.’Actually，itwasReaganhimselfwhohadfirstcalleditaninvasion.In1999，theU.S.governmentbombedChineseembassyinYugoslaviaonpurpose，buttoconcealtheirguilt，theycalledthebombing‘friendlyfires’andsoon.

Sometimes,theinvaderevenusesthecosmeticfunctionofeuphemismstoshirkone’sresponsibilityandkeepthemselvesfrombeingcensuredbytheinternationalpublicopinion.Forexample,theJapanesegovernmentwasunwillingtoadmititsheinouscrimeinfrontofitsciviliansafteritssurrenderintheWorldWarTwo.Itevendistortsthehistory.Initshistorytextbooks,“invadeChina”ismisrepresentedas“enterthemainland”,“massivekillinginNanjingcity”whichshockedthewholeworldwascalledas“occupyNanjingcity”.Intheendof20thcentury,NATO,inordertospeeduptheprocessof“theplanofeastward”,takingtheKosovoCrisisasanexcuse,bombedYugoslaviaheavily,whichlastovertwomonths.TheunscrupulousbombingbroughttheYugoslaviansthematerialandmentalloss.WhencountriesallovertheworldblamedtheNATO’s“robberyaction”,inordertoescapefromit,NATOcalledthewaras“humanitarianintervention”.TheAmericanDefenseMinisterWillianCohendeniedthewaragainstYugoslaviaontheNewsReleaseMeeting,andsaideuphemisticallythat,“Wearecertainlyengagedin‘hostilities’;weareengagedin‘combat’.“AmericanSecretaryofstateMadeleineAlbrightevencalledthe“continuousbombing”ofNATOagainstYugoslaviaas“NATO’soperation”,sothattheycouldtaketheeasierwaytotalkaboutthesituationofYugoslaviaconcernedbypeopleallovertheworld.7

Ininternationalaspect,therearealsosomeexamples,whichreflectthepositivefunctionofthepoliticaleuphemisms.Forinstance,“thedevelopingcountry”isreferredto“thepoorcountry”toavoidtheproblemofun-developmentandshowthepoliteness,whichisgoodforthecooperationbetweenthecountriesallovertheworld.Anotherexample,whendifferentpoliticalsystemsarereferred,peopleoftenuse“theeasterncountries“torefertothesocialistcountries,suchasChina,and“thewesterncountries”tothecapitalistcountries,suchasAmerica,soastosoftenandavoidtheconflict,andkeepaharmoniousatmospherebetweenthecountries.

Wecanalsoseetheuseofpoliticaleuphemismsusedforpolitenessfromthereportsabout“NuclearWeaponProbleminKoreanPeninsula”.ThespeakerofAmericanWhiteHouseSteveMcClarenonceemphasizedonaNewsReleaseMeetingthat,“theAmerica’sattitudewouldneverbechanged,thatis,wewillcontinuetolookfordiplomaticresolutioncooperatingwiththeneighborcountriesofKorean,butatthesametime,westillkeepalltheotheroptionalplans.”RichardPerle,thehigh-gradeconsultantofAmericanDefenseDepartment,whowasvisitingMoscowatthattime,whenhewasinterviewedbythelocalTVprogramaboutNuclearWeaponProbleminKoreanPeninsula,hesaid,“Idon’tthink(America)wouldsolvetheproblemthroughuseofforce,butnoonecanensurethatitisimpossibletouseforce.Wearemakingourendeavortosolvetheproblem,andaretryingtomakeKoreanstopitsnuclearplanwithoutconsideringusingforce.”InfaceofAmerica’sbeatingaroundthebush,Koreanreliedthat,“IfAmericaattackKorean,KoreanpeoplearmycertainlywillgivetheAmericanarmy‘theruthlesspunishment’.”Inthediplomaticspeech,althoughthetwosideopposedeachotherwithequalharshness,expressedeachother’sfirmattitude,theystilltriedtoavoidtalkingabout“war”directly,sothattheycanremaintheroomforpeacesolutionthroughpoliticalanddiplomaticdevices,soasnottobefallenintothepassivesituation.8

Fromalltheexamplesabove,wecanconcludethattherearetwomainfeaturesofthecommunicationofpoliticaleuphemisms.

(1)Todisguise:Theuseofsuchpoliticaleuphemismshelpsgovernmentbeautifythefact，andpreventspeoplefromtakinganyanti-governmentaction.Theseeuphemismsformaframeworktodeceive，tohidethedirtybusinessofwar.

(2)Tobepolite:Itwasusedtomaintainthefriendlyrelations,whicharerequiredforsmoothandeffectivecommunication.Thepurposeofsocialinteractionistopromotethefriendshipbetweenthespeakersandtherefore，everytimewhenonespeaks，hehastoconsiderwhetherwhathesaysislikelytomaintain，improve，ordamagethefriendship.

3.Rhetoricalapplicationofpoliticaleuphemism

Politicaleuphemism,asanimportanttypeofeuphemism,alsousestherhetoricaldevicestomakethecommunicationeffectively.9Peopleoftenusethefollowingrhetoricaldevices:

3.1Theuseofunderstatement

Thefeatureofunderstatementisthatthespeechofittouchestheessenceofthematterinaverylittledegree,sothatpeoplewhodon’tknowthetruthortheimplicationcan’tfeeltheseriousnessofthematter.Politicaleuphemismsoftenusetherhetoricdeviceofunderstatement.Therearemanyexamplesofthiskind.Forexample,“poor”isadreadfulwordbothinEnglishandChinese,itmeansthelifeisinadifficultposition,andindicatesthelowsocialposition.Italsoindicatesthegovernmentalinabilitytosolvesocialandeconomicproblems.Inordertocoverupitandmakethepovertyproblemseemtobenotsoserious,government

call“poor”as“needyordisadvantaged”,callthe“slum”as“substandardhousing”,“slumchildren”as“theculturallydifferentchildren”,and“ghetto”isreferredtoas“innercity”.InEnglish,therearenotpoornationsorpoorcountries,butonlybackwardnations,underdevelopednations,developingnationsandemergingnations.TheUNcallsthosepoorcountriesas“less-developednationsorcountries.”

Intheinternationalpoliticalaffairs,especiallyinthemilitaryfield,therearemoreexamplesofthiskind,whichareusedtocovertheessenceofsomedirtymatters.Forexample,MinistryofDefense,infact,isMinistryofWar.Americangovernmentonceuses“OperationSunshine”tocoveritsheinouscrimethattheytooktheexperimentofhydrogenbulletinthePacificOcean.DuringthewarofGulfwar,Americanuse“airoperation”and“groundoperation”insteadof“airstrike”and“groundwar”,asaresult,peoplecouldn’tfeelabouttheterriblenessandcruelnessofthewarfromthewordsdirectly.

3.2.Theuseofperiphrasis

Periphrasisusuallyuseslongphrasesorsentencestomakethelistener’sattentionfarfromthetopic.Politiciansoftenusesomelongerwordstoexpresstheirideas.Becausewhenpeoplewanttodisguisesomefacts,theyoftentakearoundaboutwayoftalk.Thentheymustusemorewords.Expressionsinpoliticalissuesareusuallymadebylongerandmorewordsorphrases.Thetypicalexampleofthiskindisthedifferentexpressionsofthe“WarSyndrome”inthreedifferentperiods.InWorldWarOne,itwas“shellshock”;inWorldWarTwo,itbecame“combatfatigue”;whilein20thcentury1960sthephrasebecamePost-traumaticStressDisorder,usedtodescribethepanicoftheordersoldiersofVietnamWar.Wecan’tseeanythingrelatedtowaratallfromthephrases.Therearesomeotherexamples:inofficialEnglish,governmentuse“intheearlystateoffinalization”insteadof“notyetfinished”;“beeconomicalwithtruth”insteadof“withholdthetruth”;“HigherEducationContributionScheme”insteadof“EducationalLevy”.And“fire”issaidas“givethesack”,“imprisonment”canbecalledas“liveatthegovernment’sexpense”,“poor”is“economicallydisadvantagedindividuals”,“weaponequipmentdevelopment”iscalledas“reconnaissanceforcessweeping”,“drop”as“adjustmentdownward”.

3.3.Theuseofirony

Ironyisafigureofspeechinwhichthemeaningliterallyexpressedistheoppositeofthemeaningindicatedandaimsathumororsarcasmandavoidshurtingothersbydirectexpressions.Thatistosayironyiswhatwesaidistheoppositeofwhatwemeant.Throughirony,lettingthelistenerguessandgraduallyunderstandwhatthespeakerreallyintendtodo,wecanavoidtomakethelistenerembarrassed.Throughit,wecannotonlycoverwhatisnotconvenienttosaydirectly,butalsoincreasesthehumor.Forexample:

Nixon’sproposalshavebeenhailedaswoundifnotoriginal.Butthisappraisalofhisownstewardshipsometimesseemsmoregenerousthancandid.

Theword“generous”isoriginallyusedasacommendatorywordtopraisesomebody.Itsusingherehastheeffectofirony,whichintendstocriticizethatthepresidentexaggeratedsomethingandwasnotmodest.10

4.Conclusion

Thepresentpaperhasfocusedonthepoliticaleuphemismusedininternalandinternationalaspectsanditsrhetoricalapplication.Itwouldbeabeneficialguideforthelanguagelearnerstounderstandthecultureandthepsychologies.Inaddition，onlywhenlearningwhattopicsorsubjectsarerequiredtobeeuphemisticallydescribed，canweavoidbeingmisunderstoodindealingwithdiplomaticaffairs.Nowadays,moreandmorepeoplepayattentiontotheresearchonpoliticaleuphemism.Bystudyingpoliticaleuphemism,wecannotonlyenlargeourknowledge,butalsograspthesocialpsychologyoftheuserusingpoliticaleuphemisms,andthenunderstandanduseitproperly.

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