英语口语和口语教育

abstract： Speaking plays a crucial role in communication. Its importance is emphasized by many researchers. For example, In Bowman’s (2010) article Critically Speaking, he mentions that ‘language is a window into culture, and speaking language is a ‘bridge’ for most people to understand other people’s belief systems (Bowman, 2010. p. 76). Paul Jones (2010) emphasizes that speaking another language is a lively way for Americans to become ‘capable of seeing beyond American ways.’ (Jones, 2010. p. 71) Lynch (2009) puts forward that how important it is for a language learner to master speaking if he/she really wants to ‘acquire’ the language but not only ‘learn’ it. As an English teacher, it is believed that speaking is one of the important elements in the four language learning skills. In the essay, a general literature review on teaching speaking will be conducted and some useful principles will be extracted.

Key Words：Speaking skills; Speaking Teaching Experiences; Heuristic Approach

General Literature review

After reading through some research papers and books, an interesting phenomenon is: not many researchers tend to research or write on English Speaking Teaching Methodology separately from the other three sub skills. Speaking is either combined with writing or is incorporated into listening. It can be hypothesized that speaking has not created as much attention as possible for either researchers or learners. So speaking itself is a potential area for teachers or researchers to examine.

Allen (1980), Allwright (1977), Sun (1989), Halliday (1973) and Green et al. (1997) expound some theories and principles which they think will useful in teaching speaking. These can be generalized as follows: the first principle is ‘developing learner autonomy’. They suggest that teachers should underpin the rational for a learner-centered approach to develop the learners’ communication or speaking skills. Secondly, they believe it would be efficient for learners if they could select topics in their practicing period. Green et al. (1997) cites Ellis’s (1990) evidence to support that acquisition is enhanced when teachers allow students a relatively free choice of topics. The third principle is that teachers should develop a ‘heuristic approach’ for students. Sun (1989) advances a heuristic approach and believes it can be divided into small steps specifically implementing a classroom discussion, pre-discussion, peer observation, evaluation, post-discussion and assessment. The heuristic approach is also an approach which lets students find and decide their own learning style, which will stimulate the learners’ interests and gradually foster their confidence in speaking. Some researchers, however, argue that learners will only be able to speak or communicate successfully after they reach certain level in English. The effect of this method will be refuted if it is used among beginners. However, Sun (1989) refutes that learners can carry out a completed conversation even without using elusive words, which are considered as belonging to a ‘higher’ English level.

Meanwhile, there are some other articles that also put forward their own principles. Allen (1980) endorses Vygotskian theory, which emphasises interaction in learning. This theory signifies the effect of dialogue, viewing dialogue as ‘constructing the resources for thinking’. The theory lies on provoking dialogue between students with little concern about their fluency or correctness. Vygotskian theory believes that through dialogue, learners will acquire speaking rapidly, and even learners cannot express themselves fluently, they could make themselves understood, which is the aim of speaking. Another principle advanced by Wegrif, R. & Mercer, S. (1996) is ‘exploratory talk’.

“This is the kind of talk that allows learners to explore and clarify concepts or to try out a line of thought, through questions, hypothesizing, making logical deductions, and responding to others’ ideals.” (Wegrif, R. & Mercer, S. 1996, p. 85)

Exploratory talk is an extended method of Vygotskian theory. It places stress on talking and pays more attention to exploring.

How to Apply the Key Principles in Teaching

Prabhu claims there is no best method for language teaching. “if those who declare that there is no best method are asked why, the most immediate and frequent answer is likely to be ‘Because it all depends,’ meaning that what is best depends on whom the method is for, in what circumstances, for what purpose, and so on. Tat there is no best method therefore means that no single method is best for everyone, as there are important variations in the teaching context that influence what is best.” (Prabhu, 1990. p. 162)

This is also applicable to the field of teaching speaking. All the above principles can be utilized but may be through different approaches according to the learners’ level, linguistic competence, and age etc. However, It is claimed that an English teacher can hardly choose the best one out of them, because if this can be carried out, according to Prabhu (1990, p. 175), then “I am working toward an unrealizable goal,” because there is no best method.

In fifteenth century China, teacher-centered education methods were mainly used, and in some remote areas are still dominating. It is time for the majority of English teachers to make some changes to the style of teaching speaking in China.

The first principle would be used perfectly here--to develop learner autonomy. Asking the students to engage with their peers and develop a recursive nature of learning process, not only sitting there and listening to the teacher, but changing from teacher-centered to learner-centered. it is efficient and very encouraging to use the selection of topics for themselves theory because students will get stimulated by their favorite topics; what is more, it will help foster their confidence in speaking. I had a student who loved football; however, his English level was lower compared to some of the more advanced students. I tried to encourage him to tell me what he knew about football including the famous stars’ names etc. He gradually developed confidence in speaking and finally took risk of talking in front of the whole class.

As to heuristic approach which places an emphasise on students’ discussion and Vygotslkian theory which stresses the importance of dialogue between students, presumably both of them could be combined together. Speaking is a practical process; learners’ level certainly would be enhanced by practicing among themselves and group discussion.

Regarding exploratory talk, what is worth to point out specifically in the principle is the ‘exploration’ spirits. Asian students often lack a risk taking attitude (at least many Chinese students do). By using this theory, one way is that we could invite some native English speakers to talk or give presentation to the class on certain interesting topics or political issues, then encouraging students to ask questions and clarify unclear points. This method could be used to arouse the students’ curiosity and finally to assist them to find the answer by asking questions or talking to peers.

All in all, there are not only these principles that have been mentioned in this article, there may be better and more efficient methods to guide learners in their speaking learning journey. However, if they are used appropriately and competently, they will all be effective methods for learners.

References：

Allen, B. & Freebairn, I. (1980). Starting Strategies. London: Longman.

Allwright, R. (1977). Language learning through communication practice. ELT Documetns 76(3). London:British Council.

Bowman, L. (2010). Critically Speaking. International Educator, 34(2), p. 81-98.

Furness, T. (2010). Towards a sociocognitive model of progression in spoken English. Cambridge Journal of Education, Vol.3, No. 2, p. 207-220.

Gren, C. & Christopher, E. (1997). Developing discussion skills in the ESL classroom. ELT Journal Vo 51/2. Oxford University Press. P. 135-143.

Halliday, F. (1973). Learner derives in second language acquisition. English Teaching Forum 31/1: 2,11.

Jones, P. (2010). Going public: teaching students to speak out in public contexts, English in Education, 34(3), 69-102.

Jones, P. (2010, March 23). Teaching Technics in English. American Educational Research Association, Retrieved from .

Lynch, T. (2009). Responding to Learners’ perceptions of feedback: the use of comparators in second language speaking courses. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching Vol. 3, No. 2, p. 191-203.

Prabhu, N. (1990). There Is No Best Method-Why? TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 2, p. 161-176.

Sun, Y. (1989). Chinese teachers’ views of Western language teaching: context informs paradigms. TESOL Quarterly 23(2):89-112.

Wegrif, R. & Mercer, S. (1996). Communicative Language Teaching. Oxford: Pergamon.