是什么改变了语言学习的过程?

Abstract：Learners are different.They will bring to the learning situation different beliefs and attitudes about the nature of language and language learning.They may act on the basis of their beliefs.Meanwhile，teachers’ beliefs about what is involved in learning will also influence the learning process.Their beliefs may affect the way in which they teach.Therefore，students’ beliefs must be taken into account if teachers were to account for students’ behaviors.At the same time，Teachers’ beliefs also need to be taken into consideration.Teachers must recognize that teaching is an expression of values and attitudes，not just information and knowledge.Teachers must recognize that a teacher who does not accept his/her learners for whom they are makes it difficult for them to accept themselves.Teachers must recognize that they themselves are constantly involved in a lifelong process of learning and change，and that how they behave in the classroom may have profound effects on the way their students change.

Key Words：students’ attitude，teachers’ beliefs，behaviors，affect，lifelong process of learning

I.Introduction

Glasser (1969) once argued that very few children come to school failures，none labeled as failures.It is school and school alone which pins the label of failure on children.As we know，in the foreign language classroom，learners are different.They will bring to the learning situation different beliefs and attitudes about the nature of language and language learning.Sometimes their differences pose a great challenge to the language teachers，which may be directly or indirectly influence the way of language learning.Therefore the language teachers should always keep the individual student's differences in mind.

But in the foreign language classroom，some language teachers do not take students’ differences into consideration in the selection of content and learning experiences.Some language teachers view their learners as receptacles，they may pour a large jug of knowledge into the learners ‘mugs’ or receptacles.Some teachers view their learners as resisters，they may use force or punishment rather than seeking ways of helping them to want to learn the language or seeing the value in what they are doing，and helping them to master a language or to foster a lifelong love of languages.Some teachers do not know the importance of self-esteem in language learning.They pay little attention to underachieving students who have low self-esteem and seem to create disturbances and to react negatively to what the student does.

Williams and Burden (1997) claim that teachers can only be really effective teachers if they are clear in their minds what they mean by learning because only then can they know what kinds of learning outcomes they want their learners to achieve，and that a teacher who lacks self-esteem will find it impossible to build the self-esteem of others.Thus a language teacher needs to convey a sense of self-confidence in using the language whilst at the same time respecting learners’ attempts to express themselves and their views in the language.

II.Changing teachers’ beliefs

The social psychologist Fritz Heider (1958) presented attribution theory in his book The Psychology of Interpersonal Relationships.A central aspect of Heider’s theory was about how people perceived events rather than the events in themselves that influenced behavior.Heider believed that people acted on the basis of their beliefs.Therefore，beliefs must be taken into account if psychologists were to account for human behavior.This would be true whether the beliefs were valid or not.Heider’s theory developed within social psychology as a means of dealing with questions of social perception.For instance，if a person is aggressively competitive in his/her behavior，is s/he this kind of person，or is s/he reacting to situational pressures？If a person fails a test，does s/he have low ability，or is the test difficult？

Heider postulated a set of rules of inference by which the ordinary person might attribute responsibility to another person (an "actor") for an action.Heider distinguished between internal and external attributions，arguing that both personal forces and environmental factors operate on the "actor，" and the balance of these determines the attribution of responsibility.

Pine and Boy (1977) claim that effective teachers create learning atmospheres which are cognitively and affectively expanding；learning atmospheres which enable the learner to become a more adequate and knowledgeable person.Williams and Burden (1997) also suggest that it is essential for a teacher to convey warmth and empathy towards the learner in order to establish a relationship of trust.Rogers (1969) also maintains that establishing rapport between teacher and student is the prerequisite to create a classroom atmosphere which is conducive to language learning.Teaching is an expression of values and attitudes，not just information and knowledge.It involves a major shift in emphasis on teachers’ beliefs and actions.A good teacher needs to adopt a critical attitude to his/her teaching methods to challenge his/her personal beliefs about teaching and learning.Because how a teacher behaves in the classroom may have profound effects on the way their students change.

III.Improving students’ self-esteem

Many foreign language educators recognize the need for improving students’ self-esteem.Brown，for example，considers self-esteem as the most pervasive aspect of any human behavior and says that "no successful cognitive or affective activity can be carried out without some degree of self-esteem，self-confidence，knowledge of yourself and belief in your own capabilities for that activity."(1987：100).And that "personality development universally involves the growth of a person's concept of self，acceptance of self，and reflection of self as seen in the interaction between self and others."(1987：101).He defines three levels of self- esteem as global，situational，and task self-esteem.One's general level of self-esteem is global self-esteem；situational self-esteem refers to certain life situations such as work，education，communicative ability，or athletic ability；task self-esteem refers to specific tasks within a situation，such as speaking a foreign language.Brown indicates that self-esteem and language performances are interacting factors and that true communication "requires a sophisticated degree of empathy." (Brown，1987)

Students’ sense of who they are has a powerful impact on their learning.Low self esteem can make many things difficult.People with low self esteem may clutch at straws.They blame themselves for things that aren’t their fault；they underestimate their abilities，and they expect things to go wrong for them.Therefore，it is the teacher who ought to exert considerable influence on the direction of students' self-esteem by communicating effectively with the students and help them enhance their self-confidence.In order to improve students’ self-esteem，teachers need to help them be able to think critically and motivate themselves consistently.

IV.Increasing teachers’ personal interaction with students

Learners’ conceptions of their own ability as learners will be based，at least in part，on the nature of classroom interactions.Lee states that he often feels that classroom teachers in frequent contact with students are in an advantageous position to encourage them to undertake independent learning outside the classroom，since it is easier to establish rapport，and hence foster teacher and peer support.

Williams and Burden (1997) have taken a social constructivist view of language learning and stress the importance of the individual making meaning of the tasks they are confronted with.They also underline the significance that the learners’ positive feelings about themselves have，and，among other things，advocate fruitful interaction in the classroom as the key to learning.

According to Feuerstein，a child’s learning is shaped by the intervention of significant adults from birth.These adults，at first parents，but later teachers，select and organize stimuli that they consider most appropriate for the child，shape them and present them in the ways considered most suitable to promote learning.However，with regard to the part played by the child within the interactive process of mediation，Feuerstein is less clear.From studies of early childhood development，Bornstein and Bruner (1960) suggest that within the social context of the family，the actions of children affect those of the parents as well as the other way round.Thus，it is important to see the child as an active participant in the mediation process，and that this process is truly interactive rather than unidirectional.

Therefore，in the language learning process，it is teachers’ job to make learners aware of the significance of the learning task so that they can see the value of it to them personally，and in a broader cultural context.In addition，it is teachers’ job to make learners aware of the way in which the learning experience will have wider relevance to them beyond the immediate time and place.Thirdly，when presenting a task，the teacher must have a clear intention，which is understood and reciprocated by the learners.

V.Conclusion

Teaching is an expression of values and attitudes，not just information and knowledge.It is not an easy process.It involves a major shift in emphasis on teachers’ beliefs and actions.A good teacher needs to adopt a critical attitude to his/her teaching methods to challenge his/her personal beliefs about teaching and learning.Because how a teacher behaves in the classroom may have profound effects on the way their students change.Although our research is still in its infancy，it does give us considerable scope for arriving at a better understanding of teaching and learning，thereby indicating how we can actually do in the language learning process.

References：

1.Brown，H.D.1994.Principles of Language Learning and Teaching，3rd edn.Englewood Cliffs，N.J.：Prentice Hall.

2.Bruner，J.S.1960.The Process of Education.Cambridge，Mass.：Harvard University Press.

3.Glasser，W.1969.Schools without Failure.New York：Harper and Row.

4.Gardner，R.C.1985.Social Psychology and Language Learning：the Role of Attitudes and Motivation.London：Edward Arnold.

5.Heider，F.1958.The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations.New York：Wiley.

6.Rogers，C.1979.Freedom to Learn.Ohio：Merrill.

7.Williams，M.& Burden，R.L.2000.Psychology for Language Teachers Cambridge University Press

杨晓华：大连医科大学外语教研部