How to achieve equivalence between ST and TT

Abstract : Literal and free translation is an old debate which has existed in the field of translation a long time. With the progress of translation theories, especially Nida comes up with the concept of equivalence between ST and TT, this concept is said to be the focus issue in translating process although there are different definitions and applicability in the field of translation. There are many translation theorists, who have highly contributions in the studies of translation field, have different perspectives about this concept. For example, in western countries, there are Roman Jakobson, Eugene A. Nida, Peter Newmark and Mona Baker. Besides, Chinese translation theorists Yan Fu, Tan Zai-xi also make their own contributions on the concept of equivalence translation. How to analysis the ST and then achieve equivalence between ST and TT based on these theories become the key point in this commentary.

Firstly I will briefly introduce the ST I've chosen and the strategy used in my translating process. Then I will discuss theories and comments about how to achieve equivalence between ST and TT raised by scholars, both western theorists and Chinese scholars. In this part, I will focus on the discussion of Newmark's communicative translation. Last but not the least I will use discourse analysis as my methodology in discussing the problems encountered in the translating process and how can I achieve pragmatic equivalence in TT.

Key words : Equivalence, Communicative Translation, Translation Latitude, Text Type, Social Cultural Context

Introduction

This source text Understanding money-how to make it work for you is a government handbook which has been produced by the Department of the Treasury of the federal government of Australia in order to assist its fellow citizens in understanding money. It provides general information related to money include how to save and invest your money, or how to choose a loan or credit card and steps to manage your debt, what is superannuation and how to protect your money etc.

There are many translation theories which guide translators to conducting their work. I did some research into finding out what sort of translation theories are commonly used in the translation field and which one is suitable to apply as the backbone theory to guide my translation for the sake of choosing the appropriate translation strategy in carrying out my translation of this ST.

Because the overriding purpose of the translation was to create 'equivalent effect' on the TT readers as received on the ST readers, I would like to adopt communicative approach in translating this source text in order to achieve communicative equivalent in TT readership.

Equivalence studies in translation field

What is a good translation? That arouses

different definitions and having different criteria to measure. Tylter, a British translation theorist, gives a definition of good translation is to completely convert the advantages of the original text to another language, enable those people in target language countries can clearly comprehend, strong feelings, just as people using the original language comprehension. It was a relatively old definition in hundred years ago but it has pointed out that a good translation should be able to make the same effect in TT readers understand and respond to the message in TT as the same way ST readers accept and understand ST.

Nida's Formal and Dynamic Equivalence

The old terms such as 'literal', 'free' and

'faithful' translation are discarded by Nida (1964: 159), who argues that there are 'two basic orientations' or 'types of equivalence', namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By distinguishing formal equivalence (F-E) translation and dynamic equivalence (D-F) translation, Nida intends to 'shift people's attention towards the effect of different translation strategies' (Hatim & Mason 1990:7).

Formal equivalence, in his view, focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content. One is concerned that 'the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the SL' (Nida 1964:159). That is to say, formal equivalence is a means of 'providing some degree of insight into the lexical, grammatical or structure form of a ST' (Hatim & Mason 1990:7).

Unlike some traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the SL and TL, Nida's Dynamic Equivalence theory focuses on reader's response. This theory opens up a new perspective to translation studies. He points out that 'naturalness is a key requirement' (1964:166). Dynamic Equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect and insists that the TT reader's response to translation product should be the same as ST reader to the original work. D-E translation supposes that the content remains the dominant position in the process of translating. It aims at complete naturalness of expression and does not require TT readers to have any knowledge about the SL culture, for it tries to put TT suited for TL cultural which would be readily familiar to TT readers.

He also defines the 'goal of D-E translation as seeking the closest natural equivalence to the SL message' (Nida & Tamber 1969:12). It makes clear that D-E translation not only emphasizes response of receptors but also the accurate meaning and intent of the source. In his view, this receptor-oriented approach 'considers adaptation of grammar, of lexical and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness' (Nida 1964:167-8). That means in order to make the TT understandable and natural, translators should avoid foreignness and unnatural expression. Moreover, it guides translators to make adaptation of SL structures when necessary including changing lexical items, shifting discourse types and grammar structure.

Peter Newmark's semantic and communicative translation

Dida's formal/ dynamic equivalence has exerted considerable influence on many prominent translation scholars. Peter Newmark, one of these scholars, deeply influenced by his formal/dynamic equivalence theory and wanted to break out of the 'literal vs free' debate and thus he sets up to a new concept semantic and communicative translation. He notices that 'the general emphasis has been placed on the reader - on informing the reader effectively and appropriately' (1981:38).

However, Newmark also disagrees with Nida's idea because he believes that formal and dynamic equivalence are completely separate poles and the two things are too far apart. What he tries to do is to narrow this gap by introducing new terms semantic and communicative translation. His idea presents diagrammatically as the 'flattened V' (Newmark 1988:45).

In this diagram, it is clear that the gap between literal vs free translation is too extreme and the gap between semantic and communicative translation is relatively moderate. Therefore, he suggests that the gap could perhaps be narrowed by replacing the old terms with those of 'semantic' and 'communicative' translation (Newmark 1981:38). He defines that 'communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original while semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original' (Newmark 1981:39).

He also states that 'the overriding purpose of any translation should be to achieve 'equivalent effect', ie. to produce the same effect (or one as close as possible) on the readership of the translation as was obtained on the readership of the original (1988:48). His communicative translation theory is very similar to Nida's D-E translation but make a further step forward. As he mentioned that, equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation (Newmark 1988:48). However, as Newmark stresses, equivalent effect is the desirable result rather than the aim of any translation, bearing in mind that it is an unlikely result in two cases: first one is that the purpose of the SL text will affect TT, second is that there are different cultures between the SL and the TL text (1988:48). In other words, equivalent effect is a very important translation concept because any type of text can adopt it as an application of measurement, but the application degree of importance is different.

He has mentioned that 'the equivalent effect in communicative translation of vocative text is not only desirable but essential' (Newmark 1988:48). Because vocative text expects readers to react in the same way, reader's response becomes the criterion of assessment. Different from vocative text, equivalent effect in communicative translation of informative text is desirable only in less important aspects relate to emotion (1988:48) when it is not intended to have any effect on the readers but to inform people. Based on his perspective, I can easily see that the communicative translation is more likely to create equivalent effect than semantic translation, because the former one focuses on TT reader's level of language and knowledge while the latter aims at preserve the most of the original text

Mona Baker (1992) also studies equivalence at different levels and make statements in her course book include equivalence at word level, above word level, grammatical level, textual and pragmatic level.

Yan Fu proposes 'faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance (信、达、雅)', to a certain extent, faithfulness means equivalence; Fu Lei, another Chinese translation theorist points out that ' prefer content to form (重神似不重形似)'. Tan Zai-xi (1999) is a follower of Nida's dynamic equivalence theory and he says that translation aims to representing from meaning to style of the SL message by translating the closest natural equivalent in the TL. Translator would encounter with the many conflicts during translating process, such as the conflict between form and content, meaning and style, equivalent and identity, and so on. However, how to translate the content of SL into TL and achieve the equivalent effect and make sense of the TL readers is the most important thing in translating process.

Methodology

In my commentary, I would like to adopt discourse analysis approach as the methodology. According to Discourse analysis, it focuses on knowledge about language which is essential for achieving successful communication, and is beyond the word, clause, phrase and sentence. It looks at patterns of language across texts and considers the relationships between language and the social and cultural contexts in which it is used (Paltridge 2006:2). Therefore, discourse analysis can also be applied in the translation study and can help translators to judge about how to translate the ST message correctly and effectively, taken into consideration of the different social-cultural context between the ST and the TT. I would like to analyze the ST in terms of the register, social cultural and text type in order to achieve the communicative equivalence in TT.

Register

Register is a 'contextual category correlating groupings of linguistic features with recurrent situational features' (Gregory and Carroll 1978:4). Baker also defines 'it is a variety of language that a language user considers appropriate to a specific situation' (1992:15).

Relate to this source text, the language user is obviously the Australian government and the ST readers are those ordinary people, whose education or knowledge do not reach a high level, especially have lower financial background and knowledge, need to be instructed step by step when encounter financial problems in daily life. Getting the tenor of text right in translation can be not easily. Sometimes, a tenor suit one culture would not be highly inappropriate in other culture. What the translator opts for any given occasion will of course depend on what he or she perceives to be the overall purpose of the translation (Baker 1992:16).

In this source text, the relationship between writer and reader is likely the same as instructor and students as the government inform its citizens understand money and how to deal with some money issues in their daily life. Therefore, in my translation, I choose appropriate tenor to suit the expectations of the Chinese reader, setting the target readers are also lack of relevant background knowledge. The ST should not be translated into a formal version with many flowery expressions and need to be simple and instructive.

Translator's competence to recognize text type

Christiane Nord once mentioned that most translation theorists agree that before embarking upon any translation the translator should analyze the text comprehensively, since this appears to be the only way of ensuring that the source text (ST) has been wholly and correctly understood (1988:2). Only the text type of the ST is identified, the translator can choose appropriate translation strategies in carrying out the translation process. In fact, as for the process of translation, it is often dangerous to start translating after only reading the first two or three paragraphs, translators need to go through the whole text first and have an overall analysis of the text type.

According to Katharina Reiss, she moves away from discussing equivalence at word or grammatical level and suggests seeking equivalence at text level where communication is to be achieved (Reiss 1977-89:113-14). According to her work, communicating simple facts features in informative text which mainly introduces knowledge, information and opinions with a desired result of transmitting full conceptual content of the ST into the TT (Reiss 1977-89:108-9). Thus it is suggested that the TT should express ideas as plainly and directly as possible and avoid redundancy (Munday 2008:73). However, translators may also be required to paraphrase to make things clear if necessary. Because it aims at the degree of language and knowledge which TT readers have and it is readily acceptable by the TT readers and more likely to create equivalent effect although sometimes paraphrase version is less interesting than the original one.

Different social cultures between China and Australia require translators to take more latitude in translating process

From a sociolinguistic perspective, translators first need to consider the genre of ST and requirement of people who ask to do the translation when deciding to take latitude. When dealing with an important or formal document such as legal statement or medical guide, translators will be expected to take less latitude, and if the ST is for advertising or entertaining, the restrictions on translators will be less strict. Besides, translators generally have their individual writing style within a more general style. When they look at a particular kind of translating activity and make judgement about the aim the text tries to achieve, translators may possibly put their prejudice into comprehension of ST which will be reflected in presenting TT as a result.

The differences between SL norms and TL norms oblige translators to take more latitude. Jakobson makes clear that cross-linguistic difference centers on obligatory grammatical and lexical form 'languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey (1959/2004:141). This indicates that languages use different though form, so what is easy to express in SL may be hard to represent in TL.

Translating in social-cultural context

As Hatim and Mason once said all texts are seen as evidence of a communicative translation taking place within a social framework (1990:2). Translator's ability to recognize texts as instances of a type - exposition, argumentation, instruction, depends on their experience of previous instances of the same type, in other words, on our ability to recognize texts as signs (Hatim and Mason 1990:2). Translator should realize that translating is a communicative process which takes place within a social context.

The translator's motivations are inextricably bound up with the social-cultural context in which the act of translating takes place (Hatim & Mason 1992:12). Therefore, translators need to analysis translating process within the social context. As we all know, Australia is an immigration country which contains many different people from all over the world and the number of immigrants is still climbing. When these newly immigrants start their new life in a new land, they need to get involved in social activities, however, some of them are not good at English, there has to be a demand for translation. The need may be 'client-driven, as when someone commissions, asks for or otherwise requires a translation' (Hatim & Mason 1992:12). As for Australian government, translation version is also needed in order to attract foreigner's attention to expand its global influence. Based on these reasons, it is necessary to translate this source text.

During my translating process, one of the biggest challenges is how to make sense in TT in social cultural communication.

In the light of the five principles set out by Etienne Dolet in translation which state that translator should avoid word-for-word renderings or liaise words eloquently to avoid clumsiness (Dolet 1997:95). Translators are obliged to take more latitude for the purpose of achieving equivalent message in TL as well as avoiding foreignness or unnaturalness to target readership.

Take the following sentence as an example, 'Have you ever thought about preparing a budget plan, but put it in the 'too hard' basket?' Language comes to life only when functioning in some environment. We do not experience language in isolation, but always in relation to a scenario, some background of person and actions and events from which the things which are said derived their own meaning (Hatim & Mason 1990). This sentence comes out of a situation of stating financial issues. If I translate it literally without take social context into consideration, there would be made senselessness in TT readers. Because meaning of sentence is not composed of the sum of the meanings of the individual lexical items (Hatim & Mason 1990:6). TT readers will be confused that how we can put a budget plan into a 'too hard' basket and its sound unnatural in Chinese expressions. In order to achieve communicative equivalence in TT, what I should do is to recognize the implied meaning in this given context and convey the source message correctly in an appropriate way in which TT readers can be accepted. Therefore, when I translate the latter part of this sentence, I take an explanatory method to indicate the intended meaning which the ST writer want to convey that the budget is too hard to conduct, therefore put it aside or maybe never conduct again, at least not conduct right now. By doing so, the pragmatic equivalence can achieve between ST and TT.

Another example selected from my translation is 'Don not put all eggs in one basket'. This is fixed expression in economics which emerged from western countries. It means that a common piece of business advice to inform investors that they need to diversify their investments and should not invest all their money in only one type of business. After identified the fixed expression, the ideal solution is to find a corresponding expression of similar meaning in the TL. However, not all of them have equivalent expressions in target language especially having great different social cultures and language systems between SL and TL. I adopt a strategy involves using an idiom in the TL which conveys roughly the same meaning as that of the TL idiom. There is an old saying in China '不在一棵树上吊死' it means do not put all of your hopes on one thing. By doing so, the translation correctly conveys the same meaning of the ST and also establishes continuity of sense in the mind of the TT readers. In other words, making the TT coherent and achieving the aim of communicative equivalence.

Conclusion

In this commentary I discuss the studies of the concept of equivalence between the ST and TT. By comparing with the theories which composed by translation theorists, especially Nida and Newmark, I agree with the communicative translation is more likely to create equivalent effect than semantic translation, because the former one focuses on TT reader's level of language and knowledge while the latter aims at preserve the most of the original text. Therefore, when I conduct my translating process, what I strictly adhere to is achieve the communicative equivalence between ST and TT. Translators should bear in mind that they need to rethink, adjust and make necessary changes to achieve successful communicative equivalence in different social cultural context.

References

Baker, M. (1992) In Other Words: A

Coursebook on Translation, London and New York: Routledge.

Dolet, E. (1540/1997) translated by D.G. Ross as 'How to translate well from one language into another', in D. Robinson (ed.) (1997), pp.95-7.

Nord, C. (1988) translated (2005, 2nd edition) as Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented text Analysis, Amsterdam: Rodopo.

Gregory, M. and Carroll, S. (1978) Language and Situation: Language Varieties in their Social Contexts, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Hatim, B. and I. Mason (1990) Discourse and the Translator, London and New York: Longman.

Jakobson, R. (1959-2004) 'On linguistic aspects of translation', in L. Venuti (ed.) (2004), pp. 138-43.

Munday, J. (2008) Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, London and New York: Routledge, 2nd edition.

Newmark, P. (1981) Approachs to Translation, Oxford and New York: Pergamon.

Newmark, P. (1988) A Textbook of Translation, New York and London: Prentice Hall.

Nida, E. A. (1964) Toward a Science of Translating, Leiden: E. J. Brill.

Nida, E. A. and C. R. Taber (1969) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E.J. Brill.

Paltridge, B. (2006) Discourse Analysis: An Introduction, London: University of London.

Reiss, K. (1977/89) 'Text types, translation types and translation assessment', translated by A. Chesterman, in A. Chesterman (ed.) (1989), pp. 105-15.

谭载喜（Tan Zai-xi），（1999）新编奈达论翻译，北京，中国对外翻译出版公司。

Source text: https://www.moneysmart.gov.au/media/142403/understanding-money.pdf

Author's Profile:SHUYUN LI, master of Social Science of Translation and Interpreting Studies, from RMIT University in Australia.

（RMIT University in Australia 3000）