A Study on the Change of Qiang’s Sanitary Custom in the Twentieth Century

Abstract：This paper conducts a preliminary research on the change of Qiang’s sanitary custom from the perspective of folklore by taking Aer village of Wenchuan as a case study. Aer village is one of the 9 administrative villages of Longxi township in Wenchuan

county， Aba Tibetan-Qiang Autonomous Prefecture， Sichuan province.

At the beginning of the 20th century， Aer village was still in a relatively closed state. The villagers’ knowledge on sanitation mainly came from their production and living experience， customs and taboos， as well as folk proverbs. In terms of cleaning and hygiene， the Aer villagers had a series of custom concerning body cleaning and food hygiene，for instances， bathing in herbal soup for the purpose of preventing disease and prolonging life； cleaning tableware with fire so as to kill the impurities hidden inside the object which might cause harm to the people. In terms of the sanitation concerning living environment， the Qiang people in Aer village had a very exquisite requirement to the house gate and window. In terms of the medical health， Qiang people’s konowledge and related practices were mainly from life experience and sorcery.

The introduction of western medicine into Qiang area in the 1930s， the training of “barefoot doctors” and organizing of series of patriotic health campaigns since the 1950s brought dramatic changes to the Qiang’s sanitary custom. For instances， the environmental sanitation was improved， cleaning products were widely used， and people’s concept on disease was changed. Correspondingly， these changes improved the Qiang people’s living environment， expanded their time and space for organizing activities， and enhanced their physical quality. In a word， the change of the Qiang’s sanitary custom in the twentieth century was a result from the combination of external and internal causes， among which the government and market were the external cause while the economic development of the Qiang society and the improvement of the Qiang people’s sanitary consciousness were the internal one.

Key Words： Qiang people； sanitary custom； change

References：

He Siqiang， Jiang Bin ed. qiangzu・sichuan wenchuanxian aer cun diaocha（Qiang・An Investigation on the Aer Village of Wenchuan，Sichuan）. Kunming：yunnan daxue chubanshe，2004.

Wenchuan Local History Compiling Committee.wenchuan xianzhi（Local History of Wenchuan）.Chengdu. Sichuan minzu chubanshe，1992.

Zhou Xiyin，Liu Zhirong.qiangzu（The Qiang）.Beijing：minzu chubanshe，1993.

Summary of the International Anthropology Workshop “Comparative

Study of Disasters and Upheavals： Perceptions and Responses”

Zhang Yuan， Tang Yun

（Southwest University for Nationalities，Chengdu，610041，Sichuan ，China）

JOURNAL OF ETHNOLOGY，VOL.7，NO.1，81-87，2015 （CN51-1731/C，in Chinese）

DOI：10.3969/j.issn.1674-9391.2015.01.13

Abstract：

The international anthropology workshop “Comparative Study of Disasters and Upheavals： Perceptions and Responses” was held at the Southwest University for Nationalities （SWUN） in Chengdu，October 16-18，2015.The international anthropology workshop was sponsored by the School for Ethnic Studies at Southwest University for Nationalities，the Research Center on Modern and Contemporary China at the National Center for Scientific Research （CNRS） （France），and the Risk and Disasters Topical Interest Group （TIG） of the Society for Applied Anthropology （USA）.Other sponsors included the editorial department of the Journal of Ethnology （SWUN），Tulane University （USA），and the Society of Otherness at SWUN.The workshop was supported by the State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs and Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University.Zhang Yuan and Tang Yun，associate professors of the School for Ethnic Studies，Katiana Le Mentec，researcher at the Research Center on Modern and Contemporary China，and Zhang Qiaoyun，co-chair of the Risk and Disaster TIG，were the co-organizers.Co-organized by scholars from China，Europe and the United States，this workshop provided a forum for comparative cross-cultural studies on risk and upheavals.Emphasizing theoretical and ethnographic reflections，this workshop not only promoted the theoretical innovations of disaster studies，but also generated new knowledge on sustainable living and development worldwide.The four organizers invited a group of internationally renowned scholars in the field of disaster and upheavals.In a month’s time （Sep.23 C Oct.23），twenty scholars from academic institutions of seven countries/regions （England，France，Italy，Germany，the United States，Singapore，and Hong Kong） convened in Chengdu to participate in various academic activities.Altogether，twenty public lectures，seven round-table discussions，and five fieldwork report meetings were held，in addition to three short field research visits to Wenchuan，Beichuan，and nearby regions.To strengthen academic cooperation and exchange，a three-day conference was held at SWUN where participants shared their most up-to-date research.The conference consisted of seven panels and two special activities.Forty scholars from both at home and abroad attended.

The workshop’s conference began on the 16th of October.The opening ceremony was hosted by Professor Zhang Mingshan，Dean of the School for Ethnic Studies.Ding Keyi，Vice-President of SWUN gave a welcome speech in English，where he introduced the university’s rapid academic development，and hoped that the workshop would promote more international and cutting-edge research at SWUN.Professor Xiao Qiong，Vice-President of the Division of International Cooperation and Exchange，introduced the foreign experts program in English.Professor Zhao Xiuyun，Editor，Journal of Ethnology，introduced the journal，which has been publishing articles written by the conference attendees and influential scholarly works by other scholars.Katiana Le Mentec and Zhang Yuan，on behalf of the organizers，introduced the themes of the workshop and acknowledged the sponsorship of the participating institutions，respectively.

“Disaster and Upheavals in the Perspective of the Humanities” was the conference’s first panel.It was chaired by Michele Gamburd，Chair of the Anthropology Department of the University of Portland （USA）.David Parkin，Fellow of the British Academy and Emeritus Professor at Oxford University （UK），was the discussant.It consisted of four presentations by David Gellner，former head of the School of Anthropology and Museum of Ethnography at Oxford University，Frédéric Keck，Researcher，the National Centre for Scientific Research & Musée du quai Branly （France），Gregory Bankoff，Professor of Modern History，University of Hull （UK），and Tang Yun respectively.Geller’s presentation “Anthropologists and the 2015 Earthquake in Nepal，” discussed the anthropologists’ particular roles in disaster relief and recovery through examining the socio-political impacts of earthquakes on local cultures and lives.Keck’s “Avian Preparedness： How Avian Influenza Has Transformed Relations to Birds in China” argued that humans need to be aware of how birds are perceived，and must be prepared for the environmental risks.This can contribute to the construction of a multi-naturalistic ontology.“An Historical Approach to Disaster Risk Reduction” by Bankoff pointed out that vulnerability to risks should be understood as a historical process，reflecting the various ways in which people of different cultures cope with disasters in specific contexts.The last presentation，“Theorizing Disaster： Life World as a Total” by Tang argued that disaster anthropology needs to provide a holistic and localized view on disasters，paying attention to the interacting effects of environment，cultural concepts，social structure，and historical processes on disaster prevention，relief，and recovery.Parkin，in his discussion，emphasized that anthropology can be especially meaningful for disaster studies by providing comparative and cross-cultural perspectives.

“Theoretical Reflections on Disaster and Upheavals” was the second panel.It was chaired by Peng Wenbin，researcher at the University of British Columbia & Chongqing University.Michele Gamburd was the discussant.The five panelists were Katiana Le Mentec，Yang Zhengwen，Vice-Dean of the School for Ethnic Studies at SWUN，Elisa Horhager，Research Fellow at the Institute for Political Science，Goethe University （Germany），Li Jin，Professor of Anthropology from Sichuan University，and A.J.Faas，Assistant Professor at San Jose State University （USA）.Le Mentec’s presentation，“Perception of Continuities in Time of Upheaval： Glimpses of a Scholar Debate in Anthropology，” argued that as much as social upheavals bring radical changes to societies，the resilience of cultural continuity has to be identified； the processes of social adaptation to upheavals using historically-informed cultural knowledge needs to be recognized.Yang presented his paper titled “Rumors and Reactions at the Liminal Phase of a Disaster―The 5.12 Wenchuan Earthquake as an Example.” He claimed that rumors spread during the liminal phase of disasters should be understood as a means by which affected population express their ideas and emotions，and should be treated as predictable responses to the unexpected disruptions.Horhager gave a presentation titled “Identifying Disaster Agency： The Definitional Struggles Surrounding Natural Hazards，” where she argued that affected populations usually provide varied understandings of the causes for disasters which can influence relevant disaster relief policies and practices.Thus，the affected population’s agency in constructing disaster perceptions and practices needs to be emphasized.Li，based on her long-term research among the Chinese ethnic Qiang，argued in her presentation titled “Transformation of Spatial Relations and Cultural Recovery in Qiang Villages” that traditional cultural knowledge is innovatively kept and transformed along with historical disasters，which still has far-reaching impacts on contemporary disaster relief and recovery practices.Finally，Faas presented his paper named “Disaster Entanglements： Networks of Practice，Memory，and Culture in Disaster Response，Recovery，and Resettlement.” He observed that memory and memory-informed practices are vital for culturally-sensitive responses to disasters，and in the same process，a collective response to disaster can be formed based on collectively-shaped memories.Gamburd concluded by pointing out that ethnographic fieldwork，the trademark of anthropological studies，can be of great value for investigating culturally varied ways of disaster prevention，relief and recovery.

A special event introducing the “Disaster History International Project” was held after the panel.Pierre Fuller，Associate Professor of History at the University of Manchester，and founder of the Disaster website，introduced the contents and sponsors of the website，and ongoing international cooperation in studying disaster histories worldwide.

The third panel，“Rethinking the Socio-political Relations in Disaster and Upheavals，” was held the next morning.It was chaired by Li Yongxiang，Professor，Yunnan Academy of Social Science.A.J.Faas was the discussant.Gamburd first presented her paper “The Golden Wave： Power and the Gift in Post-Tsunami Sri Lanka，” where she argued that disaster rescue and gift giving can refashion the power relations between，and identify the politics of donors and disaster victims.Mara Benadusi，Professor of Anthropology at the University of Catania （Italy），and organizer of the Disaster and Crisis Anthropology Network under the European Association of Social Anthropologists，in her presentation，“Evoking Disaster： Regimes of Truth and Falsification in the Wake of the Indian Ocean Tsunami，” argued that tsunami victims can be both resilient and vulnerable.The evocation of their different agencies becomes one effective coping strategy.The paper by Dr.Peng Wenbin，“Environmental/Identity Politics，and Indigenous Campaigns against Oil Tanker Traffic Expansion along the Pacific Rim，” studied Vancouver residents’ varied reactions when their living environment is threatened by international oil tankers，a situation in which the power relations between indigenous residents and international tycoons are reshaped.Roberto Barrios，Associate Professor of Anthropology at Southern Illinois University Carbondale，presented his paper titled，“Waiting for the Rain： The Political，Discursive，and Material life of Climate Change in Mexico.It examines how the discourse and politics concerning climate change and draught in Mexico re-negotiate the power relations among the constituents and their perception towards environmental risks.Lastly，Zheng Shaoxiong，Associate Professor at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences，discussed the tension between state and local space making practices in Chinese grassland policy in the talk，“Grassland Policy in Contemporary Inner Mongolia and the Responses of Mongol herdsmen.” Faas concluded by emphasizing that the problems of power，identity，and agency are recurring issues in disaster studies to be analyzed through different approaches.

The fourth panel，“Community Resilience and Cultural Reconstruction in Post-Disaster，” was chaired by Stéphane Gros，Researcher at the National Centre for Scientific Research （France）.Zhang Yahui，Associate Professor of Anthropology at the Central University for Nationalities，was the discussant.Li Yongxiang presented，“Post-Disaster Reconstruction and Community Demand，” discussing the discrepancy between state reconstruction plans and local people’s demands in the ethnic Dai and Yi communities of Yunnan，China，a discrepancywhich further increased the victims’ vulnerability.Zhang Qiaoyun presented the paper she co-authored with Roberto Barrios，which studied how local culture was problematically interpreted and reconstructed in ethnic Qiang communities after the Wenchuan Earthquake in Sichuan，China.Zhang Yahui in his discussion，pointed out that researchers need to differentiate the front-stage and back-stage performances of the affected victims in order to examine the effects of disaster recovery on the transformation of local lives.

“Shaping Narratives and Memories of the Disaster” was the fifth panel.It was chaired by Li Jin.Gregory Bankoff was the discussant.Wang Xiaokui，Professor of Folklore at East China Normal University，in his presentation “Disaster Memory and Local People Narratives，” argued that the ways of remembering and memorizing disasters in recent history reflect the changing attitudes towards disaster and mourning in Chinese society.Chris Courtney，Research Fellow of the Asia Research Institute of the National University of Singapore，discussed how the state’s relief strategies helped shape the citizen’s attitudes towards the disaster in his paper，“Living Through Disaster： The Phenomenal and Affective Experience of the 1931 Hankou Flood.” Lastly，Zhang Yuan gave a paper，“The World in Sand： The Local Narrative of Desertification in Alpine Wetlands and Grasslands，” which argued that an exploration of local perception of disasters can help us evaluate the problems of disaster relief work managed by outsiders.Bankoff，in his comments，pointed out that investigation of the memories，experiences，and narratives about disasters can showcase the cultural logic and socio-historical context within which disasters are differently conceived and managed.

In the evening，a second special event，the Wenchuan Earthquake of 2008 in Documentary，was held.Qiu Yue，Ph.D.candidate of the Divisions of Humanities at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology，first discussed how disaster documentaries helped record and broadcast the often ignored or submerged voices and experiences of the victims of the Wenchuan Earthquake in China.Ma Zhandong，director of the documentary “One Day in May，” showed his documentary on the experience of a family who lost their only child to the Wenchuan Earthquake.A discussion was then held for conference participants to exchange comments with director Ma.

On October 18th，the last two panels were held.The morning panel，“Perception and Representation of Disaster，” was chaired by Wang Xiaokui.Frédéric Keck was the discussant.Guo Jianxun，Associate Professor of History at SWUN，gave a paper titled “Environment，Ethnic Group，Local Knowledge and Disaster： The Earthquake in Daduhe of 1786 as an Example，” in which he argued that local knowledge towards disaster is shaped by the changing state-local relationships and inter-ethnic interactions in Southwest China； local knowledge is，thus，a product of cultural exchange.Edwin Schmitt，in his paper，“On the Dual Identity of Air Pollution in China and Creeping Environmental Disasters，” further claimed that people’s negotiation of globalized and local identities greatly influences their perception towards environmental disasters as a global issue.Xue Ximing，Professor of Tourism Studies at SWUN，in his presentation，“Home and Place in a time of Change： Producing the Production of Space among Migrants in the Migrant Community after Disaster，” discussed how the state-led，top-down reallocation policy affected traditional space，making changes in the practices of the migrating Qiang villagers after Wenchuan Earthquake in China.Fabio Carnelli，Ph.D.Candidate of Anthropology at the University of Milan Bicocca （Italy），argued that an investigation of time and space making post-disaster can help the understanding of disaster as a social disruption in his paper，“Ethnography of a Present Absence： Space-Time Practices in Post-Seismic L’Aquila.” Finally，Lei Tianlai，Ph.D.Candidate of Folklore at East China Normal University，in his paper，“Force of State，Modern Media and National Community： In the Case of Memorial Ceremony of ‘Tou Qi’ to the Sinking of the ‘Eastern Star’ Cruise Ship，” argued that incorporating folk death rituals into state-sponsored memorials can help solidify the sense of nationalism in time of crisis.Frédéric Keck，in his discussions，argued that perceptions towards disaster and disaster relief are influenced by particular socio-political relationships.Furthermore，anthropologists should also consider the perceptions of “nonhuman animals” towards disasters.

The afternoon panel，“Artist Representation of Disaster，” was made a public event at The Bookworm Bookstore.Du Hui，lecturer of history at SWUN，chaired the event.Anne Kerlan，Researcher at the Institute of Contemporary History Studies at the National Center for Scientific Research （France），was the discussant.Kerlan presented the paper “Cities in Ruins： Perspectives from Orient and Occident，” written by Danielle Elisseeff，Professor at the Research Center on Modern and Contemporary China of the National Centre for Scientific Research （France）.Elisseeff argued that different representations of ruins in eastern and western art works reflect varied approaches towards the perception and consumption of disasters.Alice Bianchi，lecturer of Art History at the Paris Catholic Institute （France），in her paper，“The Representation of Victims of Disasters in Ming and Qing Paintings，” discussed how the depiction of victims of hunger evokes Confucian doctrines in Ming and Qing paintings.“Emotions，Natural Disasters and Documentary Mise-en-scene，” presented byJudith Pernin，Post-Doctoral Fellow at the French Center for Research on Contemporary China （Hong Kong），argued that disaster is always a personal experience influenced by particular state-local，public-private relationships.Cao Minghao and Chen Jianjun，artists from Chengdu，in their talk，“The Artist Representation of Disaster and Upheavals，” discussed how art work about disasters and social upheavals help raise public awareness of the history and impacts of such unfortunate events.Lastly，Christine Vial-Kaiser，curator of the Paris Catholic Institute，gave a presentation titled “Monuments and Traumatic Memories： Artistic Proposals，” discussing how artists’ work on victims of the Wenchuan Earthquake helped relieve the pain and sorrow of their relatives while the state-sponsored memorials failed to do so.Kerland，in her comments，emphasized that in addition to representing social life，art work is at the same time shaping the meaning and emotions of social events.

The closing ceremony was held after the last panel.Tang Yun，Katiana Le Mentec，and Zhang Qiaoyun summarized the achievements of the workshop and introduced plans for further exchange and cooperation.The workshop participants all expressed their gratitude and satisfaction of this fruitful event.David Parkin，in particular，commented that this workshop could be an exemplar of international scholarly exchange.With the best wishes for lasting friendship and cooperation，the workshop successfully ended.

Key Words： disasters；upheavals；anthropology；workshop