Imagination beyond the Ancient Cemetery on Mt. Le

Most people believe that the practice of sky burial is allpervasive in Tibet. While some people may have a passing acquaintance with the rituals regarding sky burial in Tibet, others may be curious and seek more information. Nonetheless, they may not even know that earth burial prevailed in Tibet just before Buddhism was introduced into Tibet or as early as when the Shangshung culture was flourishing. According to the historical records of Tibetan Bon religion, entitled Zha Ba Ling Zha : “… During that time (referring to the 1st Century, BC when the 2nd Tibetan King Mutri Tsenpo was on the throne), various kinds of cemetery monuments, including 37 stupas, 37 crystal monuments and 37 tombs, were built at 37 spots throughout the area of Bon religion in Tibet.” The cemetery on Mt. Le is one of the ruins of these ancient cemeteries from the Tubo Kingdom.

This cemetery on Mt. Le is a rare and uniquely picturesque cemetery in Tibet. It not only reflects the funereal culture, system and technology of over 1000 years ago, but also has significant value to scholars in the study of the rise and fall of the Tubo Kingdom. Moreover, it signifies the vital importance of studying Tibetan history, the change and evolution of the ancient climate and environment in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Accordingly, this ancient cemetery has been formally categorized as a nationally significant cultural relic.

Even so, the cemetery on Mt. Le is not as well known as it should be due to the difficulty in reaching it, which has deterred visits from outsiders and locals as well. That is also the reason that I have been staying in Tibet for years but have yet to pay a visit. My only source of knowledge about comes from literary and historical records.

On examining the sources, I discovered that this cemetery was actually located on the southern slope of Mt. Le, about 1.5 kilometers away from the northeast Le Village in Kyimtong Town of Nang County in Nyingchi Prefecture. At approximately 3,200 meters above sea level there are a total of 184 earthen tombs scatted over 800,000 sq. meters. Amongst these, there are 23 giant tombs of over 700 sq. meters each. The biggest one is 66 meters along its perimeter and 14 meters in height. Their shapes vary including trapezoid, square, round, circular, and so forth. The applied architecture style is typical of Tibetan stone construction. In the cemetery area, other structures are also found such as altars, stone monuments and so on.

Some questions may arise, that was not orthodox Buddhism. Even oral folklore rarely escapes from this obliteration. They were aggressively transformed into items that thereafter were always connected with “Tibetan Buddhism”. At present, to find the original version of the legend is virtually impossible.

On the way to Nang County, we encountered a bypass. Driving further eastward, the small and serene Village Le is sighted in front of us. The village looked very neat but is full of flowers and grass spotted in family yards. Paved lanes zigzag through newly built houses. However, only a few people were wandering around. When we found an old lady, we found out that the villagers were digging for caterpillar fungus in the mountains since it was the peak season. On asking, we immediately learned that we had chosen the wrong way to access Mt. Le, which was actually at the northeast flank of the village, by cutting through a river. Retracing our steps, we crossed over a small bridge. About five kilometers further, we found a group of ancient tombs at the top of a hill. They were very impressive. Though having read much related literature, I was still stunned by such gorgeous and spectacular landscape. This was a far more grand and a far larger ancient cemetery in comparison with the one in Lhoka.

Standing on a high point and taking a look around, I saw the whole side of the mountain was irregularly dotted with different sized mausoleums. Nonetheless, to see all of the mausoleums would take lots of time. We failed to do that because we only had very limited time. Just counting the ones just in front of us, there were over 30 mausoleums. According to the literature, mausoleums come in all shapes. Some are close together, but others stand lonely on hilltops. It is incredible that the Tubo Kingdom had such an advanced production force over a thousand years ago to build such giant mausoleums. It must have cost a tremendous fortune in terms of both labor and materials. The glory accumulated through a thousand years to construct this immense cemetery, hidden in this mountain range and lying on lush grassland. It is as though there are some kinds of universal connection. Whenever the wind blows, the land, the mountains and the rivers, are telling ancient stories under their breath. There is feeling that, between the past and present, there is an invisible link, connecting everything as it stretches over the plateau.

What is this link?

For quite a while, I was puzzled and confused by it but it was always there.

Later on, we reached Chosam County. A friend told me there was also an ancient cemetery there. I was taken to it and found it was huge. Unfortunately, no written records were available. Nevertheless, if I looked at this from another angle, it might be good to go beyond the literary boundaries to extend my imagination. Mt. Budanglha and Gyatsa County makes the former in the east and the latter in the west. By moving further toward the west, I found the location of Chongye cemetery in Lhoka. From this moment, my confusion and bewilderment were gradually dissolved. These cemeteries were as the tied beads of a broken necklace scattered on the snow-capped plateau. But the thread to connect all the beads was actually the famous holy river, the Yarlung Tsangpo River.

Traveling in Tibet, no matter how, you can never go anywhere not closely connecting with the Yarlung Tsangpo River. Whenever and wherever you access either Shigatse or Lhoka (location of the origins of Tibet), or the sunlit city Lhasa, or the flourishing forest area of Nyingchi, this river will be your companion from time to time. Hailing from ancient times she carries Tibetan history from then until today, constantly flowing since the dawn of Tibetan civilization.

T h e h i s t o r y o f h u m a n the continuation of civilization is intimately connected with mountains and rivers. No matter whether the Nile River or the Mississippi or the famous Euphrates or the Tigris River, even the Yellow River in China, all are the cradle to splendid ancient civilizations. In general, the rivers are not referred to as simply physical rivers containing water, but also as a vital part of civilization.

The Yarlung Tsangpo Riveris the biggest river in Tibet andalso the highest river on earth,often referred to as “the poleriver”. Crossing over from thewest to the east and crossingthrough the south of Tibet, this river originates from Gyema

such as, when were these groups of ancient tombs built? What was their historical background? W h o w e r e b u r i e d i n s i d e ? What technology was used to build them? Archeologists and historians are confronted with many such questions and few of them have been resolved. Tibetan Newspapers recently discussed Pasang Wangdu, the senior research fellow of the Tibetan Academy of Social Sciences (TASS). His histological perspective is based on h i s s t u d i e s o v e r many years and according to him the owner of the cemetery on Mt. Le was the “Khenmu” family who had kinship with royal families over 300 years. The provenance of the family lineage was the erstwhile rulers of the neighboring regime entitled “Khenmuyu” existed before the unification of King Songtsen Gampo of the Tubo Kingdom. According to the historical literature, before the foundation of the Tubo Kingdom in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau by King Songtsen Gampo, there were 12 small kingdoms, divided into even further into 42 sub-kingdoms. “Khenmuyu” was one of those 12 kingdoms. According to Pasang Wangdu, the ancient Tibetans buried their departed dignitaries, such as Tsenpo, in the place where their ancestors sprung from, no matter where they passed away. The geographic location of the cemetery on Mt. Le corresponds with the Khenmu family lineage. In addition, Dunhuang historic documents have further verified this discovery of the over 300 - year connection between Khenmu lineages and the royal families of the Tubo Kingdom since the 6th Century. In particular, after the unification of Tibet by Songtsen Gampo, members of the royal family such as Tsenpos m a r r i e d wives from Khenmu f a m i l i e s , while the males were given some important posts i n g o v e r n m e n t administration an

such as, when were these groups of ancient tombs built? What was their historical background? W h o w e r e b u r i e d i n s i d e ? What technology was used to build them? Archeologists and historians are confronted with many such questions and few of them have been resolved. Tibetan Newspapers recently discussed Pasang Wangdu, the senior research fellow of the Tibetan Academy of Social Sciences (TASS). His histological perspective is based on h i s s t u d i e s o v e r many years and according to him the owner of the cemetery on Mt. Le was the “Khenmu” family who had kinship with royal families over 300 years. The provenance of the family lineage was the erstwhile rulers of the neighboring regime entitled “Khenmuyu” existed before the unification of King Songtsen Gampo of the Tubo Kingdom. According to the historical literature, before the foundation of the Tubo Kingdom in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau by King Songtsen Gampo, there were 12 small kingdoms, divided into even further into 42 sub-kingdoms. “Khenmuyu” was one of those 12 kingdoms. According to Pasang Wangdu, the ancient Tibetans buried their departed dignitaries, such as Tsenpo, in the place where their ancestors sprung from, no matter where they passed away. The geographic location of the cemetery on Mt. Le corresponds with the Khenmu family lineage. In addition, Dunhuang historic documents have further verified this discovery of the over 300 - year connection between Khenmu lineages and the royal families of the Tubo Kingdom since the 6th Century. In particular, after the unification of Tibet by Songtsen Gampo, members of the royal family such as Tsenpos m a r r i e d wives from Khenmu f a m i l i e s , while the males were given some important posts i n g o v e r n m e n t administration and

Yangzom glacier situated at the north of the Himalayas in Drongpa County. In ancient Tibetan language, this river was given the name of “Yarchab”, meaning the water flowing down from the highest mountain peak. The world’s highest mountain range, the Himalayas, is on its southern side, and Mt. Gandise and Mt. Nyanchen Thanglha are standing to the north. Between the north and the south is the area referred to as the grain repository, “Lhoka” in Tibetan language, meaning ‘‘the South’’. This area, at a rather low elevation, extends from the east to the west while the Yarlung Tsangpo River is calmly flowing through the grain repository. The land here has a rather flat terrain and enjoys a favorably humid climate for irrigation agricultural. In the book entitled “The Historical Records of Tubo Kingdom in Dunhuang Volume” it states that this place,

enclosed by snow capped mountains, is the centre of heaven, the core of the earth, the heart of the world, and the origin of all rivers.”

As early as the Paleolithic period, human beings had already been living on the riverbank of the Yarlung Tsangpo, and achieved prosperity after the Neolithic period. Excavated stoneware, pottery, and other relics have been unearthed, scattered extensively over a wide area. At the six sites along with the riverbank of the Yarlung Tsangpo in Metok, experts have unearthed some primitive tools including axes, and at the Chokong Neolithic period ruin located on the river bank of the biggest tributary of Yarlung Tsangpo River, Lhasa River, fishing tools and even fish bones have been unearthed. Also, at the Jumu Ruin, the Hongguan Ruin and the Gya Ma Ruin situated at the confluence of Nganchu River (another tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo) and Yarlung Tsangpo River, the fishing tools of ancient Tibetans have been discovered. Archeologists have unearthed architecture ruins and ancient mausoleums at Banggye Village of Kyarng Town in Jiuhe District of Chongge County, situated halfway along the Yarlung Tsangpo River.

The tributaries of the Yarlung Tsangpo River, including Lha Ge River, Nyangchu River, Lhasa River, and Nyyang River, have naturally formed an extensive plain on the smooth terrace where a variety of agricultural crops (including barley, beans, potatoes, and wheat) thrive in the rich soil, relatively warm climate and abundant water. These areas have inevitably become the key and most productive agricultural areas of Tibet, especially for grain production. In comparison with other areas with a harsh climate, this area on the riverbank is, generally speaking, a great place to live. When Tibetan history reached the end of the Neolithic Period, many tribes emerged along the riverbanks of the Yarlung Tsangpo. Amongst them, the Yarlung Tribe flourished on the river bank of Yarlung Tributary by exploiting the geographic and climatic advantages which led to advances in agriculture and animal husbandry, political ascendancy and economic superiority. Gradually this led to the annexation of the land and properties of small tribes along the riverbanks of both Lhasa River and Nyangchu River by the 32nd Tsenpo, Songtsen Gampo. Eventually, he united the plateau and founded a prosperous and powerful kingdom. Tubo, and Lhoka, therefore, became the most important political and economic nexus. Thereafter, King Songtsen Gampo moved the capital to Kyishod Pkutang along the riverbank of the Yarlung Tsangpo, where Lhasa City was erected. Nevertheless, the remains of the key deceased persons of the kingdom were not buried at Lhasa but rather sent back to Lhoka and buried in the wellknown Tibetan Kings’ Cemetery.

These scattered Tibetan royal mausoleums are large, but

simple and unadorned, expressing the ideology and strengths of ancient Tibetans as well as their rich culture that intrigues present-day Tibetans and inspires deference andadmiration toward those individuals buried in them. However, the question is from where did the burial practices of that period originate? The following arguments are the outcome of an academic study on this topic during recent research in the northwest of Tibet, and all of these might be taken as reference for further research.

As is known, amongst the bulk of the tribes and kingdoms in the seventh century, Shangshung Kingdom was supreme with a unique and flourishing culture. It was located in the northwest of Tibet (approximately the current area of Ngari, Nagqu, part of Shigatse, and the northern part of India). Stone coffins were popular in the ancient Shangshung Kingdom. Today, the local people still refer the ancient cemetery in this area as “Men Dor”, meaning the “entrance of a mausoleum”. The word “Men” sounds like “Moinpa” which is one of the ethnic groups in Tibet, but this is not the case. Instead it refers to an ancient ethnic group living in what today is the northwest of Tibet. Since this ethnic group devoted themselves to a special religion differing from Buddhism, they followed their own practice to bury their dead under the earth. This is the reason that all remaining ancient tombs in the western and northern part of Tibet are all acknowledged as being left by ethnic Men. Unfortunately, the history on this is incomplete, and these tombs are therefore included in the sweeping generalization “Men Dor”. We may regard all ancient tombs alongside the Yarlung Tsangpo River as the continuation and expansion of “Men Dor”, inheriting this ancient way of burial as well as its associated culture. Nonetheless, the movement of and wide diffusion of Tibetan Buddhism throughout subsequent history has buried the previous primitive culture and covered it with the thick dust of time. What we are obliged to do today is to blow away this thick dust to discover and recapture the true origin of the culture and to escape the box around Tibetan culture in which only Buddhist culture is acknowledged and all others are obliterated.