英语论文范文

时间:2023-02-27 09:41:22

英语论文

英语论文范文第1篇

【关键词】英语论文 具体编辑 写作特点

一、引言

关于论文写作,对于很多人来是一个很大的难题,而且对其具有畏惧心理,英语论文写作更是如是。而没有认识到写作是一个循序见进的过程,这是一个反复的过程,需要大量实践,才能实现质的提升,但从现实来看大多数会被几次写作的失败后而倍受打击,失去写作的信心,另外有人也因为急于求成,反而使得所写论文一塌糊涂。所以对英语论文写作需要一个正确的认识、客观的思考、不惧怕失败的心态才能战胜论文写作,另外对于英语论文编辑的特点也需要一个全新的认识,掌握其特点才能写出一篇正式规范、有深度、便于他人阅读理解的文章。

二、英语论文现状与趋势

1.英语论文写作步骤。一般情下,英语论文写作分为以下几个步骤:首先在写作前应对所给的众多题目进行选择自己能感兴趣的或者够驾驭的,然后再根据所先题查阅相关的资料,在大量的资料中锁定几篇精髓文案进行精读、研究;开始正式写作时一定要列出提纲,这是很多人知道但最容易忽略的细节,提纲看似简单,但对后面的写作有着至关重要的作用,提纲有一定的指导作用,不致让人写到中途的时候偏离了主题,使先前所做工作功亏一篑,所以写作前一定要列提纲;然后进入正式写作时,在完成论文之后应从头再阅读一篇,对其中所存在错漏进行修改、增添,而在还需要证实的地方应再次查阅资料,进行一定的修改,最后形成一篇有理有据,内容丰富充实的高质量的终稿。

2.英语论文写作目的。和中文论文一样,英语论文写作主要为了表达写作者自己对论题的观点与认识,应对相关论题提出自己的观点,做到有理有据,观点不一定要求新颖但必须是出自己的,另外论据须充分有力,思路清晰、推理完整,表达英论文写作的真正目的,而不能使论文写作失去了本质的意义。

3.英语论文所出现的具体问题。英语作为中国学生的第二语言,英语论文对于中国学生也是非常重要的,而且论文是综合能力求较高写作。英语论文写作除了上面已提到过的一些不足以外还存由于语言方面的其它问题,下面将一一分析这些问题。

论文语体不正式,不规范;主观语句过多使用,而且经常过多使用简单句,使得整篇论文过于口语化,另外在用词方面,一篇论文出现大量词句重复使用,使得文章读起来累赘、空泛。

4.英语论文写作特点与意义。通过英语论文写作,学生能从其中提高对问题综合分析能力、写作能力、科研能力等,也同时对学生创新思维能力也有一定的提高。这一系列能力的提升将最终有益学生个人发展,以改变一些论文中存在对各种信息、数据堆砌而没有自己的思想和观点的现象。提高学生对所学的知识的应用,让其能够学以致用,并能根据所学知识从不同的角度全方位对问题进行认识、分析、研究和判断。

三、如何提高英语论文写作

1.正确认识英语论文的写作目的。与一般写作不同,论文的撰写对于人们在学习、工作要求相对来说比较高,而且也相对更重要。因此必须让从事论文写作的学生与工作人员意识到论文写作的重要性,随全球化进程的不断推进,英语论文的地位也越来越重,英语论文的优劣将会影响到个人职业发展与人生前途。

明确地认识到为什么写论文,写这篇论需要了解哪方面的知识,需要做哪些准备工作,自己对论文有什么看法,自己从论题看到哪些问题,需要从哪些方面下手解决,自己能提出怎样的方案,有什么当主流观视角不同的发现、自己的提议对有什么学术意义、实际意义等,这些都是写一篇论文之前应该做的准备。

2.加强英语论文写作指导。对于大学生,学校则可以通过设置论文写作的相关课,聘请专业老师对英语论文写进行指导,另一方面也可以通过开展大量论文写作方面的活动、讲座与比赛,提高学生们英语论写作的兴趣,或者通过在校园内、校园网站上宣传英语论文写作的重要性,提高学生们对英语论文的重要性认识。

3.写作中的细节问题解决方案。而在选题问题上,则应该避免题目过大,而应针对一个大问题的某一具体点展来写,使论述更加充分详实,论证明确有力。

在写作中,思路应尽量清晰的,表述更尽量准确、完整,论据、引用必须出自权威、专业的资料,而且应在相应位置标注清楚,不要让人觉得是在抄袭;而在句子合用方面,则应尽量多使用复合句、并列句、复合并列句;同样的在单词的选择用上,也尽量使用专业性、学术性的正式的单词,而口语上常使用词,让论文更具专业性;在表达方面应尽量以客观叙述为主,且使用正式、书面词汇,尽量避免使用带有强烈感彩的词语,另外在叙述方面尽量不要重复、累赘。而在格式上,则在第一遍写完之后对论文作细致检查时,对细节方面加以调整。

参考文献:

[1]刘润清.从文章的参考书目看科研中的问题[J].山东外语教学学,2002,(6):3-4.

英语论文范文第2篇

语言和内容是评判一篇英语论文质量高低的重要依据;但是,写作格式规范与否亦是一个不可忽略的衡量标准。因此,规范英语论文的格式,使之与国际学术惯例接轨,对我们从事英语教学,英语论文写作,参加出国英语考试,促进国际学术交流都具有重要意义。由于英语论文写作规范随学科不同而各有所异,本文拟就人文类学科英语论文的主要组成部分,概述美国教育界、学术界通行的人文类英语论文写作规范,以供读者参考、仿效。

一、英语论文的标题

一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:Dr./Prof.C.Prager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English734或BritishNovel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需doublespace,即隔行打印,行距约为0.6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。

就学生而言,如果英语论文篇幅较短,亦可不做标题页(及提纲页),而将标题页的内容打在正文第一页的左上方。第一行为作者姓名,与打印纸顶端距离约为2.5cm,以下各行依次为教师学衔和姓、课程编号(或名称)及日期;各行左边上下对齐,并留出2.5cm左右的页边空白(下同)。接下来便是论文标题及正文(日期与标题之间及标题与正文第一行之间只需隔行打印,不必留出更多空白)。

二、英语论文提纲

英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为2.5cm左右)的始端打上Thesis一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母;处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。

三、英语论文正文

有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约1.5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码;阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。

四、英语论文的文中引述

正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节;既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式(即英语论文参考文献)的规范性。引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。目前美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。现针对文中引述的不同情况,将部分规范格式分述如下。

1.若引文不足三行,则可将引文有机地融合在论文中。如:

ThedivorceofArnold''''spersonaldesirefromhisinheritanceresultsin“thefamiliarpictureofVictorianmanaloneinanalienuniverse”(Roper9).

这里,圆括弧中的Roper为引文作者的姓(不必注出全名);阿拉伯数字为引文出处的页码(不要写成p.9);作者姓与页码之间需空一格,但不需任何标点符号;句号应置于第二个圆括弧后。

2.被引述的文字如果超过三行,则应将引文与论文文字分开,如下例所示:

Whitmanhasprovedhimselfaneminentdemocraticrepresentativeandprecursor,andhis“DemocraticVistas”

isanadmirableandcharacteristic

diatribe.Andifoneissorrythatinit

Whitmanisunabletoconceivethe

extremecrisesofsociety,oneiscertain

thatnosocietywouldbetolerablewhoses

citizenscouldnotfindrefreshmentinits

buoyantdemocraticidealism.(Chase165)

这里的格式有两点要加以注意。一是引文各行英语论文的左边第一个字母十个空格,即应从第十一格打起;二是引文不需加引号,末尾的句号应标在最后一个词后。

3.如需在引文中插注,对某些词语加以解释,则要使用方括号(不可用圆括弧)。如:

Dr.Beamanpointsoutthat“he[CharlesDarwin]hasbeenanimportantfactorinthedebatebetweenevolutionarytheoryandbiblicalcreationism”(9).

值得注意的是,本例中引文作者的姓已出现在引导句中,故圆括弧中只需注明引文出处的页码即可。

4.如果拟引用的文字中有与论文无关的词语需要删除,则需用省略号。如果省略号出现在引文中则用三个点,如出现在引文末,则用四个点,最后一点表示句号,置于第二个圆括弧后(一般说来,应避免在引文开头使用省略号);点与字母之间,或点与点之间都需空一格。如:

MaryShelleyhatedtyrannyand“lookeduponthepooraspatheticvictimsofthesocialsystemandupontherichandhighborn...withundisguisedscornandcontempt...(Nitchie43).

5.若引文出自一部多卷书,除注明作者姓和页码外,还需注明卷号。如:

ProfessorChenJia''''sAHistoryofEnglishLiteratureaimedtogiveChinesereaders“ahistoricalsurveyofEnglishliteraturefromitsearliestbeginningsdowntothe20thcentury”(Chen,1:i).

圆括弧里的1为卷号,小写罗马数字i为页码,说明引文出自第1卷序言(引言、序言、导言等多使用小写的罗马数字标明页码)。此外,书名AHistoryofEnglishLiterature下划了线;规范的格式是:书名,包括以成书形式出版的作品名(如《失乐园》)均需划线,或用斜体字;其他作品,如诗歌、散文、短篇小说等的标题则以双引号标出,如“ToAutumn”及前面出现的“DemocraticVistas”等。

6.如果英语论文中引用了同一作者的两篇或两篇以上的作品,除注明引文作者及页码外,还要注明作品名。如:

BaconcondemnedPlatoas“anobstacletoscience”(Farrington,Philosophy35).

FarringtonpointsoutthatAristotle''''sfatherNicomachus,aphysician,probablytrainedhissoninmedicine(Aristotle15).

这两个例子分别引用了Farrington的两部著作,故在各自

的圆括弧中分别注出所引用的书名,以免混淆。两部作品名均为缩写形式(如书名太长,在圆括弧中加以注明时均需使用缩写形式),其全名分别为FounderofScientificPhilosophy及ThePhilosophyofFrancisBaconandAristotle。

7.评析诗歌常需引用原诗句,其引用格式如下例所示。

WhenBeowulfdivesupwardsthroughthewaterandreachesthesurface,“Thesurgingwaves,greattractsofwater,/wereallcleansed...”(1.1620-21).

这里,被引用的诗句以斜线号隔开,斜线号与前后字母及标点符号间均需空一格;圆括弧中小写的1是line的缩写;21不必写成1621。如果引用的诗句超过三行,仍需将引用的诗句与论文文字分开(参见第四项第2点内容)。

五、英语论文的文献目录

论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为WorksCited,其格式须注意下列几点:

1.目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。

2.目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码;如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码(但必须计算页数),其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。标题WorksCited与打印纸顶端的距离约为2.5cm,与第一条目中第一行的距离仍为0.6cm;各条目之间及各行之间的距离亦为0.6cm,不必留出更多空白。

3.各条目内容顺序分别为作者姓、名、作品名、出版社名称、出版地、出版年份及起止页码等;各条目应严格按各作者姓的首字母顺序排列,但不要给各条目编码,也不必将书条与杂志、期刊等条目分列。

4.各条目第一行需顶格打印,回行时均需缩进五格,以将该条目与其他条目区分开来。

现将部分较为特殊的条目分列如下,并略加说明,供读者参考。

TwoorMoreBooksbytheSameAuthor

Brooks,Cleanth.FundamentalsofGoodWriting:A

HandbookofModernRhetoric.NewYork:Harcourt,1950.

---TheHiddenGod:StudiesinHemingway,Faulkner,Yeats,

Eliot,andWarren.NewHaven:YaleUP,

引用同一作者的多部著作,只需在第一条目中注明该作者姓名,余下各条目则以三条连字符及一句点代替该作者姓名;各条目须按书名的第一个词(冠词除外)的字母顺序排列。

AnAuthorwithanEditor

Shakespeare,William.TheTragedyofMacbeth.Ed.LouisB.

Wright.NewYork:WashingtonSquare,1959.

本条目将作者Shakespeare的姓名排在前面,而将编者姓名(不颠倒)放在后面,表明引文出自TheTragedyofMacbeth;如果引文出自编者写的序言、导言等,则需将编者姓名置前,如:

Blackmur,RichardP.Introduction.TheArtoftheNovel:

CriticalPrefaces.ByHenryJames.NewYork:Scribner''''s,

1962.vii-

如果引言与著作为同一人所写,则其格式如下例所示(By后只需注明作者姓即可):

Emery,Donald.Preface.EnglishFundamentals.ByEmery.

London:Macmillan,1972.v-vi.

AMultivolumeWork

Browne,Thomas.TheWorksofSirThomasBrowne.Ed.

GeoffreyKeynes.4vols.London:Faber,1928.

Browne,Thomas.TheWorksofSirThomasBrowne.Ed.

GeoffreyKeynes.Vol.2.London:Faber,1928.4vols.

第一条目表明该著作共4卷,而论文作者使用了各卷内容;第二条目则表明论文作者只使用了第2卷中的内容。

ASelectionfromanAnthology

Abram,M.H.“EnglishRomanticism:TheSpiritoftheAge.”

RomanticismReconsidered.Ed.NorthropFrye.New

York:ColumbiaUP,1963.63-88.

被引用的英语论文名须用引号标出,并注意将英语论文名后的句点置于引号内。条目末尾必须注明该文在选集中的起止页码。

ArticlesinJournals,Magazines,andNewspapersOtto,MaryL.“ChildAbuse:GroupTreatmentforParents.”

PersonnelandGuidanceJournal62(1984):336-48.

报刊杂志名需划线,但其后不需任何标点符号。62为卷号或期号,如既有卷号,又有期号,则要将二者以句号分开。如:(3.3);1984为出版年份,应置于圆括弧中。

Arnold,Marilgn.“WillaCather''''sNostalgia:AStudyin

Ambivalance.”ResearchStudiesMar.1981:23-24,28.

月刊或双月刊须同时注明出版年月;23-24,28表示该文的前一部分刊于第23和24两页,后一部分则转至第28页。

Gorney,Cynthia.“WhentheGorillaSpeaks.”WashingtonPost

31July,1985:B1.

英语论文范文第3篇

下面是一篇英语论文的开题报告范文,虽然不是特别好,但也反应了开题报告的格式和写法,有一定的借鉴价值。

functionandapplicationofdescriptivetranslationstudies

1introduction

theintentionofthisstudyistoexplorepossibleadvantagesofdescriptivetranslationstudiesasinitsapplicationintranslationpracticeandtranslationanalysis.

sinceearly20thcentury,translationstudiesgraduallybrokeawayfromthemarginalstatuswithinotherrelateddisciplinesandestablisheditselfasanempiricalscience.fromthenon,schoolsofthoughthavekeptcomingoutandeachclaimsitslegitimacyforexistence.amongtheseschoolsisdescriptivetranslationstudies(dts).

dtsapproachestranslationfromanempiricalperspective.translationisviewedtobeasocialactivityhavingsignificantimportanceinthereceivingcultureandforthetargetcommunity.therefore,translationisdealtwithbeyondthelinguisticrealizationandlanguagecomparison,andisincorporatedinsocialandculturalcontext.

myattentionwasfirstdirectedtodtsbyitspeculiarcharacteristicofobservation,descriptionandexplanation.thesubjectiswhateverhappensintranslationpractice,fromthedeterminationofprospectivefunctionoftranslationtotheprocessoftranslator’schoiceofstrategies,brainstormingandtherevision,tothefinalproductmakingappearanceinthetargetcommunity.

themethodofdtsisbasicallydescriptive.theprescriptivetendencyandtheproblem-solutionpatternisabandoned.translationphenomenaarenoteddown.withaccumulateddata,someunderlyingtruthsabouttranslationwillcomeoutwhichwillprovetobeinstructivenotonlyfortheoreticalprobebutalsoforappliedtranslationpractice.iwillapplythisdescriptivemethodinthecasestudyofthisthesis.

aconvenienttoolhasbeensetuptoconductdts.“norm”isoperativeateverystageofdescriptionandexplanation.function,processandproductandtheirrelationshipaswellareskeletalstructureofwhatconstitutedescriptivestudies.translationphenomenaareaccountedforwiththehelpofnorm.

thecasetakeninthisthesisisthechineseclassicthedreamofredmansions.twoenglishversionstranslatedrespectivelybyyanghsien-yianddavidhawksarecomparedandobservationsaremadeinregardtotheirtranslationapproaches.

inthisregard,myobservationsarelimitedtoseveralaspects,ihopein-depthobservationandexplanationwilldoneinlightofdts.2outline

2.1developmentandmajorconceptsofdts

inthispartiwilldescribeholms’basicmapofdtsandtherelationshipbetweenfunction,processandproduct.iwillalsodiscusssomeimportantconceptssuchaspseudo-translation,multipletranslation,translationese,normetc.

2.2methodolgy

iwillinthispartdiscussthemethodologyofdtsbeforeiapplythesametothecasestudyinthisthesiswithemphasistobeplacedonsemioticapproachandtheconceptnorm.

2.3dtsincontrasttoothertheories

acontraststudywillbeconductedherewiththeobjectivetofindthedifferenceofdtsfromothertheoriessuchasequivalencetheoryandthechinesexindayacriteria.someadvantagewillpossiblybeshowninthisstudy.

2.4casestudy

inthispart,translationofthedreamofredmansions(alsotranslatedasthestoryofthestone)willbe

underinvestigationinlightofdts.translationsamplestobequotedherewillbeselectedatrandom.

2.5conclusion

basedontheaboveelaborationofdtsandthecasestudy,possibleconclusionwillbeontheadvantageofdtsinspecificstudyoftranslation.suggestionsonfurtherresearcheffortswillbemadealso.

(note:whilethetopicwillremainthesame,theabovearrangementofcontentsissubjecttochangeintheprocessofwriting.)

英语论文范文第4篇

下面是一篇英语论文的开题报告范文,虽然不是特别好,但也反应了开题报告的格式和写法,有一定的借鉴价值。

function and application of descriptive translation studies

1 introduction

the intention of this study is to explore possible advantages of descriptive translation studies as in its application in translation practice and translation analysis.

since early 20th century, translation studies gradually broke away from the marginal status within other related disciplines and established itself as an empirical science. from then on, schools of thought have kept coming out and each claims its legitimacy for existence. among these schools is descriptive translation studies (dts).

dts approaches translation from an empirical perspective. translation is viewed to be a social activity having significant importance in the receiving culture and for the target community. therefore, translation is dealt with beyond the linguistic realization and language comparison, and is incorporated in social and cultural context.

my attention was first directed to dts by its peculiar characteristic of observation, description and explanation. the subject is whatever happens in translation practice, from the determination of prospective function of translation to the process of translator’s choice of strategies, brainstorming and the revision, to the final product making appearance in the target community.

the method of dts is basically descriptive. the prescriptive tendency and the problem-solution pattern is abandoned. translation phenomena are noted down. with accumulated data, some underlying truths about translation will come out which will prove to be instructive not only for theoretical probe but also for applied translation practice. i will apply this descriptive method in the case study of this thesis.

a convenient tool has been set up to conduct dts. “norm” is operative at every stage of description and explanation. function, process and product and their relationship as well are skeletal structure of what constitute descriptive studies. translation phenomena are accounted for with the help of norm.

the case taken in this thesis is the chinese classic the dream of red mansions. two english versions translated respectively by yang hsien-yi and david hawks are compared and observations are made in regard to their translation approaches.

in this regard, my observations are limited to several aspects, i hope in-depth observation and explanation will done in light of dts.

2 outline

2.1 development and major concepts of dts

in this part i will describe holms’ basic map of dts and the relationship between function, process and product. i will also discuss some important concepts such as pseudo-translation, multiple translation, translationese, norm etc.

2.2 methodolgy

i will in this part discuss the methodology of dts before i apply the same to the case study in this thesis with emphasis to be placed on semiotic approach and the concept norm.

2.3 dts in contrast to other theories

a contrast study will be conducted here with the objective to find the difference of dts from other theories such as equivalence theory and the chinese xin da ya criteria. some advantage will possibly be shown in this study.

2.4 case study

in this part, translation of the dream of red mansions (also translated as the story of the stone) will be

under investigation in light of dts. translation samples to be quoted here will be selected at random.

2.5 conclusion

based on the above elaboration of dts and the case study, possible conclusion will be on the advantage of dts in specific study of translation. suggestions on further research efforts will be made also.

(note: while the topic will remain the same, the above arrangement of contents is subject to change in the process of writing.)

英语论文范文第5篇

Duringthemid1780s,thegovernmentundertheArticlesofConfederationprovedunabletosuccessfullylevyandcollecttaxes,andunabletocarryoutthebasicrequirementsofdiplomacy.Thenationwasindangerofbreakingapart.AfterShays''''RebellionalertedmanyAmericanstotheweaknessofthecurrentnationalgovernment,politicalleadersdecidedtoaltertheframeworkofgovernmentunderwhichtheUnitedStatesoperated.

TheConstitutionalConventionmetinPhiladelphiaanddeterminedthatitwasinthenation''''sbestinteresttocreateanentirelynewframeworkofgovernment.Fornearlyfourmonths,thedelegatesattheconventiondeliberatedonhowbesttoaccomplishthisrebuildingeffort.TheConstitution,theresultoftheseproceedings,setsoutthetripartitesystemofgovernmentthatisstillinplaceintheUStoday.ItcreatedabicamerallegislatureconsistingoftheHouseofRepresentativesandtheSenate,anexecutivebranchheadedbythepresidentandstaffedbythecabinet,andprovidedfortheestablishmentofajudicialbranch,consistingofafederal-courtsystemheadedbytheSupremeCourt.

AlthoughtheConstitutionestablishedthebasicframeworkofgovernment,itswordingwasvagueinregardtothedetails.Thus,thefirstCongressundertheConstitutionandthefirstPresident,GeorgeWashington,wereresponsibleforworkingoutthedetailsofgovernance.InthefirstyearsofthenewUnitedStates,WashingtonandtheCongresscreated,amongotherthings,thenowacceptedtraditionsofthecabinetandthejudicialsystem.Theprecedentstheysetestablishedthestandardoperatingprocedureofthenationalgovernmentforyearstocome.

DuringthefighttoratifytheConstitution,adivisionsprangupbetweenthosewhowantedtograntthecentralgovernmentbroadpowers,theFederalists,andthosewhofearedthatanationalgovernmentwhichwastoostrongwouldprovedespotic,theAnti-federalists.ThisdebatecontinuedintotheWashingtonadministration,asSecretaryofStateAlexanderHamiltonsetforthaprogramofeconomicFederalismwhichincludedtheassumptionofstatedebtsbythenationalgovernment,andthecreationoftheBankoftheUnitedStates.HiseffortspaidofffortheUSonageneralscale,butHamilton''''sactionsturnedmanyawayfromFederalism,sincetheybelievedHamiltonhadoversteppedtheboundsofthenationalgovernment.

英语论文范文第6篇

EE6442 Assignment 3

Fan Zhang

University of Limerick

MEng. Computer and Communication Systems

ID: 0526401

Abstract: I am a video game fan, but not an addict. Since this topic attracted me a lot, I decided to choose this one as my topic for the third assignment of Processor Architecture Module. I started to play video games since I was five. While I was playing games, I found the game console itself just like a mystery, how could they react our actions to the controller then reflects so amazing pictures on TV? Although I have read a lot about it in game magazines, I admit that I didn’t try to find the answer until I found this topic. This is a great chance for me to answer the question myself. At the same time, I want to present you this paper, which should be fun.

This paper concerns the differences of architecture between PC and PlayStation 2. Since the purposes of PC and PlayStation 2 are different (or maybe I should say the purposes of PC include that of PlayStation 2), the different objectives decide the different design orientation. I think PlayStation 2 is a good game console for the comparison. First, a lot of documentations about PlayStation 2’s Emotion Engine can be found in the Internet. Second, as far as I know, PlayStation 2’s design has straightforward purposes: 3D games and multimedia, which makes the game console is seemed to be born for these two reasons. Contrasts to PlayStation, current PCs do very well on these two aspects, but the cost is the unstoppable upgrade of hardware. PlayStation 2 is a product born 5 years ago. Today tens of millions of people are still enjoy PlayStation games at home. 5-year-old PCs have been washed out already.

Keywords: PC, processor, video card, system controller, bus, Emotion Engine, Vector Unit, Graphics Synthesize.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 The evolution of game performance

The computer technology has achieved rapid evolution this year. From Figure 1.1 to Figure 1.5 you can see, in almost twenty years, how great changes of game performance are, both PC and game consoles.

Figure 1.1: Final Fantasy I (FC) 1987 by SQUARE

Figure 1.2: Final Fantasy XII (PlayStation 2) 2006 by SQUARE ENIX

Figure 1.3: Prince of Persia (PC) 1989 by Broderbund

Figure 1.4 Prince of Persia: The Two Thrones (PC) 2006 by Ubisoft

The screenshots above are the evidences of technique developments. In these twenty years, computers are almost 10 times faster than in the 1980’s. The cost of buying a computer is decreasing simultaneously. However, the development orientations of both PC and game consoles didn’t change much during these 20 years. Here I want to say game consoles and PC are different, although they both can be classified to ‘computer’ class, although PC includes all game consoles’ functions (but the software are not compatible each other). The differences include many areas, the architecture, the media, the software producing and selling model, and the customers.

1.2 Why they are different?

I would rather to say it is because of the distinct purposes. Of course PC can play games, can do anything that game consoles do, and in the present, PlayStation 2, the most famous game console in the world, can connect to Internet, can print paper, even can run complete Linux operating system, but PC is general purpose, this means PC should care too much things, and be good at almost everything. For instance, PC should be good at text processing , games, printing, Internet connection, a huge amount of protocols are settled for it; PC also need to compatible with all components and software that are designed and implemented by current standards. But game consoles are different. They need only care about games, which mean most designs are flexible. At the same time, the standards which PC has to obey do not affect it at all. No extra cost, no burden, only focus on games.

Figure 1.5: Sony’s PlayStation 2

1.3 Multimedia

From later 20th century, multimedia has become one of the main purposes of PC. Corresponding new technology for enhancing the capability of multimedia processing on PC has been developed as well. However, the reality of transmission speed bottleneck hasn’t been changed much. Keith Diefendorff and Pradeep K. Dubey published an article named “How Multimedia workloads will change Processor Design” in 1996. They argued the dynamic media processing would be a big challenge for current processor architecture. They also thought it will force the fundamental changes in processor design.

Before Pentium 4, the processors shared the same character: their data cache memory was big, but instruction cache memory was relatively small. It was quite useful for most usage, for instance, word editor, e-business, stock information processing, and so on. However, Diefendorff did not think it is useful, or efficient enough for multimedia processing, for multimedia data come and forth constantly, no need to settle a huge bulk of storage space for holding the information that rarely has chance of reuse. Contrarily, multimedia processing requires more calculation than others. So, for multimedia calculation, the instruction cache memory should become larger, both caches require faster transmission speed as well. We shall see this prediction has realized much in both Pentium 4 and PlayStation 2.

1.4 The purpose and the brief layout of the article

This paper is mainly talk about the architectural differences between PC and PlayStation 2, which is the most famous game console in the world. The article will discuss several aspects, the whole architecture, the CPU, the motherboard, and the graphics. In the following section, the whole architectures are compared. Two processors, Intel’s Pentium 4 and PlayStation 2’s Emotion Engine are discussed and compared in the third section. The fourth section is about the bus and caching comparison. The fifth section mainly talks about PC and PlayStation 2’s graphic devices, Video card and Graphics Synthesizer. The conclusion will be made in the last section.

2. WHOLE ARCHITECTURE COMPARISON

2.1 PC architecture

The basis of PC could root back to 1940’s. John von Neumann (1903-57), who constructed a very basis structure of computer, stayed his name in the history forever. The architecture of modern PC is still based mainly on his architecture. Let’s see a diagram of PC architecture as our basis of illustrating how PC works for game performance in the future.

Figure 2.1: PC architecture--------------------------------->

Different regions in the diagram have different clock speed. We can see the system controller is the heart of whole PC system. It carries data between processor and other components in PC over bridge. The bridge is used to connect interfaces and buses. Two kinds of bridges exist in PC, North Bridge (the system controller) and south bridge (the bus bridge). The system controller provides an interface between the processor and external devices, both memory and I/O. The system controller works with the processor to perform bus cycles.

From the diagram we can see, the system controller makes the whole diagram to be complicated. This is because the system controller has to adjust the bus cycles between the processor and the external device that it wants to access. Briefly, the PC’s working procedure can be described as follow:

PC executes commandsèaccess data with the help of system controllerèreturns the execution resultèexecute commandsè…

System controller also possesses the function of controlling DMA (Direct Memory Access), which is the ability to transfer data between memory and I/O without processor intervention.

2.2 PlayStation 2 Overview

Let’s first see the architecture of PlayStation 2.

Figure 2.2: the architecture of PlayStation 2---------------->

PlayStation 2 is composed of a graphics synthesizer, the Emotion Engine, the I/O Processor (IOP), and a Sound Processor Unit (SPU). The IOP controls peripheral devices such as controller and disk drive and detect controller input, which is sent to the Emotional Engine. According to this signal, the Emotional Engine updates the internal virtual world of the game program within the video frame rate. Many physical equations need to be solved to determine the behavior of the character in the game world. After this is determined, the calculated object position is transformed according to the viewpoint, and a drawing command sequence (display list) is generated. When the graphics synthesizer receives the display list, it draws the primitive shape based on connected triangles on the frame buffer. The contents of the frame buffer are then converted from digital to analogue, and the video image appears on the TV. Finally, the Sound Processor is in charge of sound card thing, it outputs 3D digital sound using AC-3 and DTS. This is the overview of PlayStation 2 working procedure.

2.3 Comparison

Compare Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2, we can see that the PC’s architecture is far more complex than that of PlayStation 2’s. There are many reasons. PC has more devices has to care. For instance, PlayStation’s I/O processor, which is act as the same role as the system controller bus in PC, the chief responsibility of this chip is to manage the different devices attached to the PS2. 2 PlayStation controller port, and MagicGate-compatible memory card interface, 2 USB ports, and a full-speed 400Mbps IEEE 1394 port, which are much less than PC. The other main reason is processor’s speed increased much faster than other devices; the devices themselves had uneven speed increments as well. In general, PlayStation 2 has simpler architecture and less components and devices.

3. ALL ABOUT PROCESSORS

3.1 Pentium 4 Processor

Pentium 4 adopts Intel’s 7th generation architecture. We can see in detail from the diagram below. Since the birthday of PlayStation 2 waiting for exploring was 4th March 2000, when Pentium 4 was not published yet. It is unfair to PlayStation 2. However, Pentium 4 is the (文秘站:)most popular processor in the present, and PlayStation 2 is globally the most popular game console, whatever.

Figure 3.1: Pentium 4 processor architecture

Since the previous generation architecture (Pentium III) Intel began to use hybrid CISC/RISC architecture. The processor has to accept CISC instructions, because it has to be compatible with all current software (most software is written using CISC instructions). However, Pentium 4 processes RISC-like instructions, but its front-end accepts only CISC x86 instructions. A decoder is in charge of the translation. Intel doesn’t create the path for programs using pure RISC instructions.

CISC instructions are rather complex, decoding one may cost several clock cycles. In Pentium III era, once a CISC instruction needed to be processed several times (i.e. a small loop), the decoder had to decode the instruction again and again. In Pentium 4 this situation has been improved by replacing Pentium III’s L1 instruction cache to Trace Cache, which is placed behind the decoder. The trace cache ensures that the processor pipeline is continuously fed with instructions, decoupling the execution path from a possible stall-threat of the decoder units. After decoding stage, Intel introduces the Renamer/Allocator unit to change the name and contents of 32-bit CISC instructions of the registers used by the program into one of the 128 internal registers available, allowing the instruction to run at the same time of another instruction that uses the exact same standard register, or even out-of-order, i.e. this allows the second instruction to run before the first instruction even if they mess with the same register.

The other big advance of Pentium 4 is its SSE2 - The New Double Precision Streaming SIMD Extensions. 128-bit SIMD package offers 144 strong instructions. Intel prepares two SIMD instruction units for Pentium 4 (64-bit each), one for instructions, and the other for data. Let’s recall Section 1.3, Pentium 4’s 128-bit SIMD extension is Intel’s efforts for meeting the future requirements for multimedia implementations. Because of that, video, games implementation capability gained the drastic enforcement.

Pentium 4’s pipeline is the most disputable place. When it was announced, 20-stage pipeline surprised a lot of people. Intel did so because the more stage pipeline can increase the clock rate of processor. However, once the pipeline does not contain the information what processor need, the pipeline refill-time is going to be a long wait. In fact, Pentium 4 is only faster than Pentium III because it works at a higher clock rate. Under the same clock rate, a Pentium III CPU would be faster than a Pentium 4.

Figure 3.2: Pentium 4 Pipeline

The scheduler is a heart of out-of-order engine in Pentium 4. It organizes and dispatches all microinstructions (in other words, uops) into specialized order for execution engines.

Figure 3.3: Pentium 4 scheduler

Four kinds of schedulers deal with different kinds of microinstructions for keeping the processor busy all the time. The ports are Pentium 4’s dispatch ports. If you read the diagram carefully, you can see Port 1 and Port 0 each is assigned a floating-point microinstruction, Port 0 is assigned Simple FP Scheduler (contains simple Floating-point microinstructions) and Port 1 is assigned Slow / Floating Point Scheduler (contains complex floating-point microinstructions). Port 0 and Port 1 also accept the microinstructions came from Fast Scheduler. For the floating point microinstruction may run several clock cycles, Pentium 4’s scheduler monitor decides to transfer the microinstruction to Port 1 if Port 0 is busy, and vice versa. Port 2 is in charge of Load microinstructions and Port 3 deals with Store microinstructions.

3.2 PlayStation 2’s Emotion Engine

PlayStation 2’s designers focus deeply on the purpose of 3D games. At the same time, they had to ensure it was completely compatible with DVD video. For per forming 3D games well, PlayStation 2 has to possess perfect vision and audio functions. Emotion Engine acts as the role of Geometry calculator (transforms, translations, etc), Behavior/World simulator (enemy AI, calculating the friction between two objects, calculating the height of a wave on a pond, etc). It also in charge of a secondary job of Misc. functions (program control, housekeeping, etc). In general, Emotion Engine is the combination of CPU and DSP processor.

Figure 3.4: The architecture of Emotion Engine

The basic architecture of Emotion Engine is show in Figure 14. The units are composed of

(1) MIPS III CPU core

(2) Vector Unit (two vector units, VU0 and VU1)

(3) Floating-Point Coprocessor (FPU)

(4) Image Processing Unit (IPU)

(5) 10-channel DMA controller

(6) Graphics Interface Unit (GIF)

(7) RDRAM interface and I/O interface.

Something interesting in the diagram you may have noticed. First, inside the Emotion Engine, there is a main bus connects all components for data communication. However, between MIP III core and FPU, VU0 and MIP III, VU1 and GIF, there are dedicate 128-bit buses connect them. Second, VU0 and VU1 have certain relationship shown in the diagram. This design extremely enhanced the flexibility of programming with Emotion Engine.

MIPS III Core connects with the FPU and VU0 directly with the dedicated buses. The pipeline of MIPS III is 6-stage. The MIPS III is the primary and controlling part, VU0 and the FPU are coprocessors to MIPS III. They compute the behavior and emotion of synthesis, physical calculations, etc For example, in a football game, the flying orbits of the ball, the wind effect, the friction between ball and the ground need to be calculated. At the same time, 21 player’s AI needs to be implemented (the last player is controlled by the user), the activity, the lineup, etc. After the calculation, MIPS III core sends out the display list to GIF.

VU1 has a dedicated 128-bit bus connected to GIF, which is the interface between GS (Graphics Synthesizer) and EE (Emotion Engine). VU1 can independently generate display list and send to GIF via its dedicated bus. Both of these relationships forms a kind of dedicate and flexible structure. The final goal of EE is generating display list and send to GS. The programmer can choose either programming two groups (MIPSIII + FPU + VU0 and VU1 + GIF) separately, send their display list in parallel, or programming purposely, making MIPS III + FPU + VU0 group as the “coprocessor” of VU1, for instance, generate physical and AI information then send to VU1, VU1 then produces corresponding display list. The diagram below shows the two programming methods.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.5: Two programming methods of Emotion Engine

MIPS ISA is an industry standard RISC ISA that found in applications almost everywhere. Sony’s MIPS III implementation is a 2-issue design that supports multimedia instruction set enhancements. It has

(1) 32, 128-bit general purpose registers

(2) 2, 64-bit integer ALUs

(3) 1 Branch Execution Unit

(4) 1 FPU coprocessor (COP1)

(5) 1 vector coprocessor (COP2)

What I really want to cover are two vector processors, VU0 and VU1. This is the main reason why PlayStation 2 is powerful.

VU0 is a 128-bit SIMD/VLIW design. The main jo b of VU0 is acting as the coprocessor of MIPS III. It is a powerful Floating-point co-processor; deal with the complex computation of emotion synthesis and physical calculation.

The instruction set of VU0 is just 32-bit MIPS COP instructions. But it is mixed with integer, FPU, and branch instructions. VIF is in charge of unpacking the floating-point data in the main bus to 4 * 32 words (w, x, y, z) for processing by FMAC. VU0 also possesses 32 128-bit floating-point registers and 16 16-bit integers.

VU0 is pretty strong. It is equipped with 4 FMACs, 1 FDIV, 1 LSU, 1 ALU and 1 random number generator. FMAC can do the Floating-Point Multiply Accumulate calculation and Minimum / Maximum in 1 cycle; FDIV can do the Floating-Point Divide in 7 cycles, Square Root in 7 cycles, and Inverse Square Root in 13 cycles. In fact, as the coprocessor of MIPS III, VU0 only uses its four FMACs. However, VU0 doesn’t have to stay in coprocessor mode all the time. It can operate in VLIW mode (as a MIPS III coprocessor, VU0 only takes 32-bit instructions. In VILW mode, the instruction can be extended to 64-bit long). By calling a micro-subroutine of VLIW code. In this case, it splits the 64-bit instruction it takes into two 32-bit MIPS COP2 instructions, and executes them in parallel, just like VU1.

VU1 has very similar architecture than VU0. The diagram below is the architecture of VU1 possesses all function that VU0 has, plus some enhancement. First, VU1 is a fully independent SIMD/VLIW processor and deal with geometry processing. Second, VU1 has stronger capability than VU0: it has a 16K bytes’ instruction memory and a 16K bytes’ data memory, which VU0 only has 4K bytes each. VU1 acts as the role of geometry processor; it burdens more instructions and data to be computed. Third, VU1 has three different paths to lead its way to GIF. It can transmit the display list from 128-bit main bus, just as VU0 + CPU + FPU do; or it can transmit via the direct 128-bit bus between its VIF and GIF; the last one is quite interesting, the path comes out from the lower execution unit (which I will talk about later) and goes directly to GIF. Three individual paths ensure two main problems of PC 3D game programming will not happen: first, the bottleneck of bus bandwidth; second, the simplex way of programming.

Figure 3.6: The architecture of VU1

VU1’s VIF does much more than that of VU0 does. The VIF takes and parses in which Sony called 3D display list. The 3D display list constructs of two types of data: the VU1 programming instructions (which goes to Instruction memory) and the data that the instruction deal with (which goes to Data memory). The instruction itself can be divided into two units, Upper instruction and Lower Instruction, which directly operate on two different execution units, Upper execution unit and Lower execution unit. The 64-bit VLIW instruction can be used to deal with two operations in parallel. Recall that VU0 possesses the same function but most of time it acts only as the coprocessor of MIPS III, this mode can only operate 32-bit SIMD instructions. Programmers also rarely ask VU0 to do the same thing what VU1 is good at.

3.3 Comparison

I strongly agree if you think Emotion Engine is more flexible than Pentium 4. The design of Emotion Engine is completely around the performance of 3D games. Two vector units, VU0 and VU1, contribute a lot for the game performance. Pentium 4 architecture is straight, you can trace the path of data from the very beginning, and soon you will be able to know how P entium 4 works easily. For Emotion Engine, except you are the game designer, you will never know exactly.

I did not put too much digits in this section, the comparison of digits does not make sense at all. The comparison between two PC processors depends on digits, because they are the same kind and work in the same situation. For game consoles, without the burden of compatibility, the designers think a lot for the perfect cooperation. This would results in better performance, plus less cost. Unfortunately the programmers don’t think it is a good idea, it cost them quite a lot of time to investigate the processor to figure how it works.

4. BUSES AND CACHEING

4.1 PC Motherboard

While multimedia processing requires massive quantities of data to move rapidly throughout the system, the speed difference between processor and external devices is the main bottleneck of PC. Processor companies like Intel have put a lot of energy into getting the rest of the system components to run faster, even if other vendors provide these components. Improving the performance of motherboard is a good idea. Figure 4.1 is the main structure diagram of GIGABYTE GA-8TRX330-L Pentium 4 Motherboard. The bandwidth between Processor and system controller, main memory and system controller has reached to equally incredible 6.4GB/S. However, the latency of memory is still impossible to remove. Here I want to talk something about the processor caching mechanism.

In the present, motherboard’s FSB (Front Side Bus) frequency has over 800 megahertz. However, it is slower than that of Pentium 4, which is over 3 gigahertz. Processor runs at a multiple of the motherboard clock speed, and is closely coupled to a local SRAM cache (L1 cache). If processor requires data it will fist look at L1 cache. If it is in L1 cache, the processor read the data at a high speed and no need to do the further search. If it is not, sadly processor has to slow down to the motherboard clock speed (what a drastic brake!) and contact to system controller. System controller will check if L2 cache has the required data. If has, the data is passed to processor. If not, processor has to access the DRAM, which is a relatively slow transfer.

4.2 About PlayStation 2’s buses and caching.

Recall Figure 2.2, we can see 32-bit interfaces between processor and I/O Processor, main memory and I/O Processor, which can achieve 3.2GB/S bus speed. Although slower than Pentium 4, Emotion Engine itself is relatively slow as well, 300MHz MIPS III processor. However, PlayStation 2’s 32-bit interface, 10-channel DMAC, 128-bit internal bus, and small cache memory group to an incredible caching condition. Any data necessary can be store or download in time. This strategy takes 90% of DMA capability. It makes the latency which main memory generates is acceptable for Emotion Engine.

4.3 Comparison

This time we can talk about digits some more. Let’s see a Pentium 4’s cache memory

L1 trace cache: 150K

L1 data memory: 16K

L2 memory: 256K ~ 2MB total: 422~2204K

Let’s see PlayStation 2 next

VU0 data memory: 4K

VU0 instruction memory 4K

VU1 data memory 16K

VU1 instruction memory 16K

MIPS III data memory: 2-way 8K

MIPS III instruction memory: 2-way 16K total: 64K

Contrast to Pentium 4, the cache memory of PlayStation 2 is too small. Its capability is indeed ‘weak’ in the present. Pentium 4 is able to hold more data and does more computations in parallel. However, PC archite cture hasn’t been improved along with the processor. No matter how Pentium 4 fast is, present bus architecture is never going to perform Pentium 4 100% capability. PlayStation 2 achieves a nearly perfect structure and mechanism, which helps it exert as much as it can (or maybe I should say because Pentium 4 is too fast, the memory speed is relatively too slow). Besides, it remarkably low down the cost, you can afford a PlayStation 2 plus a controller with the same price of a single Pentium 4 chip.

5. VIDEO PERFORMANCE

5.1 Comparison of performance between PC and PlayStation 2

Figure 5.1 Need for Speed Most Wanted (PlayStation 2) 2006 by EA GAMES

PlayStation 2 Graphics Synthesizer (GS)

· 150 MHz (147.456 MHz)

· 16 Pixel Pipelines

· 2.4 Gigapixels per Second (no texture)

· 1.2 Gigatexels per Second

· Point, Bilinear, Trilinear, Anisotropic Mip-Map Filtering

· Perspective-Correct Texture Mapping

· Bump Mapping

· Environment Mapping

· 32-bit Color (RGBA)

· 32-bit Z Buffer

· 4MB Multiported Embedded DRAM

· 38.4 Gigabytes per Second eDRAM Bandwidth (19.2 GB/s in each direction)

· 9.6 Gigabytes per Second eDRAM Texture Bandwidth

· 150 Million Particles per Second

· Polygon Drawing Rate:

· 75 Million Polygons per Second (small polygon)

· 50 Million Polygons per Second (48-pixel quad with Z and Alpha)

· 30 Million Polygons per Second (50-pixel triangle with Z and Alpha)

· 25 Million Polygons per Second (48-pixel quad with Z, Alpha, and Texture)

· 18.75 Million Sprites per Second (8 x 8 pixel sprites)

Figure 5.2 Needs for Speed Most Wanted (PC) 2006 by EA GAMES

PC Graphics Chip RADEON X300 SE PCI Express

· Bus type PCI Express (x16 lanes)

· Maximum vertical refresh rate 85 Hz

· Display support Integrated 400 MHz RAMDAC

· Display max resolution 2048 x 1536

· Board configuration

· 64 MB frame buffer

· Graphics Chip RADEON X300 SE PCI Express

· Core clock 325 MHz

· Memory clock 200 MHz

· Frame buffer 64 MB DDR

· Memory I/O 64 bit

· Memory Configuration 4 pieces 8Mx16 DDR

· Board configuration

· 128 MB frame buffer

· Specification Description

· Graphics Chip RADEON X300 SE PCI Express

· Core clock 325 MHz

· Memory clock 200 MHz

· Frame buffer 128 MB DDR

· Memory I/O 64 bit

· Memory Configuration 4 pieces 16M x 16 DDR

· Memory type DDR1

· Memory 128 MB

· Operating systems support Windows? 2000, Windows XP, Linux XFree86 and .

· Core power 16 W (Max board power)

From the data we can see. GS is too weak, contrast to low-level video card of PC. However, the performance of PlayStation is not too that bad. I don’t want to analyze data here. What I am interested to discuss is about the performance itself.

Let’s see Figure 5.2 in detail. Texture is very clear and exquisite. This is what big video memory offers. The tree leaves in distance need a lot of polygons to build. The video card itself is low-level; possess no special effect for the game rendering. No refection and other sparking place can be found. In general, the game performance is only ok.

Figure 5.3 PC game rendering related architecture

Now let’s see PlayStation 2’s performance, which is in Figure 5.1. We see a good image. If you look the image in detail, y ou may found the mountain beside the road is weird: the shape of mountain is not that nature, like some spectrum graphics. This is done by VU1, which draws the Bezile, build 3D graphic based on the curve. Although not good enough, how many people will actually notice that when dashing at over 200km/h with his virtual car? VU1 does a lot of job like that and it could generate a lot of shapes without too many polygons to build. Now let’s see the car, the refection of cars is true reflection (which means it is not fake texture pretended to be the reflection), we can distinguish the mountains behind, however very blur. The whole image is not as clear as Figure 5.2 because the limitation of GS’s video memory (4M). However, this image is good enough for most PlayStation 2 players.

5.2 Some more about the video performance

Although Pentium 4 has enough capability to process image real time, the way of implementing games is still no change. The video card read the content of texture into its local memory card, the processor only deal with the data and instructions. After the calculation, the processor stores the display list (a list, recorded with the details of all elements, for instance, one single polygon’s position and texture code) back to the main memory. Video card then access the lists and process them, generate picture, transfer to analogue signal and output. Most special effects depend on the video card. So, no good card, no good performance.

Let’s see figure 2.2, we will see there is no direct connection between GS and main memory. At the PC’s point of view, 4MB video-memory is not enough to show a single frame with 1024*768 pixels. How is PlayStation 2 able to perform like that? The answer is bus. So we come back to section 4 again. The specialized display list (which Sony called 3D display list) is directly sent to GS, along with the required texture. GS has a huge bandwidth (3.8GB/S), its local memory can work as fast as it is (maybe it is more suitable if we call the memory as cache). GS itself supports only a few special effects. However, this situation can be improved by the simulation calculations finished by Emotion Engine… Again, PlayStation 2’s elegant design makes its all components work as a whole.

6. CONCLUSION

Hopefully you have got the idea of how PlayStation 2 and PC architecture differ. Let’s go through it again.

General architecture. PCs are more complex to read, but easier to implement. The system bus directly manages all devices inter-communications. PlayStation 2’s is easy to read, but much harder to implement. The communication between each other is convenient.

Processor architecture. The trend of processor architecture design is meeting the requirement of multimedia. Both PC’s Pentium 4 and PlayStation 2’s Emotion Engine are qualified to run multimedia applications efficiently. Pentium 4 is much stronger than Emotion Engine, but the architecture is very ‘straight’ and has to do extra jobs of translating instructions to be compatible with current applications. Emotion Engine has no this burden, the specialized 3D game performance design make it easy to handle complex calculation jobs with relatively low clock rate.

Buses and Caching. PC has classic bottlenecks and there is no way to overcome it. Current PC buses and cache has improved a lot by increasing the bandwidth and cache volumes, but the latency of main memory cannot be solved. PlayStation 2 works on nearly full load; perfect coordination between components is almost achieved.

Video . Although Pentium 4 can run perfectly on multimedia applications, the PC game developers don’t think so. They still stick to push the texture and other data into the video memory for one time. The awkward situation is, when you want to update your PC for high requirement games, the first component came into your mind must be the video card but processor. It is impossible to ask PlayStation 2 players to update. Emotion Engine is in charge of many jobs what PC’s video card does. The good condition of data transmission makes it is possible to implement ‘true’ multimedia processing in games, that is treating game image as media streams, no need to supply huge data storage to hold that.

Purpose: PC’s general—purpose VS PlayStation 2’s 3D game rendering purpose.

PlayStation 2 is 6 years old now. According to the principle of game console life expectance, it is time to hand the baton to its offspring, PlayStation 3. It is a successful game console of Sony. Contrast to PC, it is too weird, but all its weird compositions seemed so reasonable as well. PC’s architecture is classical; all components have its space for upgrade. Maybe it is too early to say the architecture should evolve. However, PlayStation 2’s architecture gave us a good lesson. If you only were interested in games, you should buy a PlayStation series, not a PC. At least, you need not worry about upgrading your components for the next game. Special architecture can make it becomes the best in specialized region.

7. REFERENCE

[1] William Buchanan and Austin Wilson, “Advanced PC Architecture”, ISBN: 0 201 39858 3

[2] John L. Hennessy and David A. Patterson, “Computer Architecture—A Quantitative Approach”, ISBN: 1 55890 724 2

[3] Keith Diefendorff and Pradeep K. Dubey, "How Multimedia Workloads Will Change Processor Design." Computer, September 1997

[4] Jon "Hannibal" Stokes Sound and Vision: A Technical Overview of the Emotion Engine Wednesday, February 16, 2000

[5] K. Kutaragi et al "A Micro Processor with a 128b CPU, 10 Floating-Point MACs, 4 Floating-Point Dividers, and an MPEG2 Decoder," ISSCC (Int’l Solid-State Circuits Conf.) Digest of Tech. Papers,Feb. 1999, pp. 256-257.

[6] Jon "Hannibal" Stokes “SIMD architectures”

[8] “The Technology behind PlayStation 2”

[13]Howstuffworks “How PlayStation 2 Works”

/ps21.htm

[14] Craig Steffen “Scientific Computation on PlayStation 2 home page”

arrakis.ncsa.uiuc.edu/ps2/background.php

英语论文范文第7篇

1专业英语论文写作能力的重要性

1.1有助于大学生创新思维的建立

大学生创新思维能力薄弱这一点在大学生毕业论文中已反映出来。作为系统地进行了四年专业学习的大学本科生,应当具备运用该学科的基本原理剖析客观事物的前因后果、历史现状、提出观点、指导实践的基本能力,而这种能力集中体现在毕业论文的写作环节。如果在抓好本科毕业论文的同时,开展专业英语论文的写作训练,就可以使学生在自己专业领域内统揽信息,站在学术理论的最前沿,深入分析,认真钻研,提出自己的认识和观点,从而锻炼和培养创新能力。

1.2是大学生完善自我走向社会的保障

专业英语论文的写作与发表是当代大学生应该具备的一项基本技能,也是反映他们的学习力、意志力和创新力的重要标志。当代社会是一个知识经济的社会、能力竞争的社会,知识人士要想在竞争中取胜就必须努力地完善自己的知识结构,积极地开展科学研究工作。不少国家对公开发表价值大的论文的作者给予重奖或晋升其职称或职务。我国人事部门也将公开列为晋升专业技术职务、职称的必要条件。有些用人单位在招聘录用人才时,也将公开列入了考核的内容。那么,论文的数量与质量就成为衡量人才自身素质的高低、研究能力强弱的重要指标。因此,较强的专业英语论文写作能力是继续学业或走向工作岗位的大学生的最强竞争优势。

2专业英语论文写作课程的设置

2.1开课时间

专业英语论文写作课程不宜安排过早,二、三年级正是课程繁重,学生开始进入专业课的学习的阶段,学生对本专业认识由浅入深的阶段,这个阶段还有各种等级考试,学生没有更多的精力来认真学习此课。而四年级下学期又面临学生就业问题,故也不宜安排此课。所以,四年级上学期开设此课是最佳时机。此时,学生对本专业有了一定的认识,对将来的发展方向也有一定的思考。此时开设此课,对大学生即将面临的毕业论文写作有较好的指导意义;为打算继续攻读研究生的学生提供了先决条件,使这些学生在将来的研究学习中,更好地利用国外参考资料,对自己将来的研究生毕业论文写作及可能发表到国外刊物的论文写作都奠定了坚实的基础,这就要比研究生要毕业时再抓英语论文写作少走许多弯路,节省了更多的宝贵时间,可以进行更多的专业研究工作;而对于即将走上工作岗位的同学,专业英语论文的写作也是必不可少的,在工作岗位上也要进行职称的评定,而评定的基本条件就是发表的论文,那么发表一篇高水平的专业英语论文必定是晋级的有力保障。

2.2课程内容

课程内容设置上应区别于普通的专业英语课,应对专业英语论文写作规范进行重点教学。

《MLA科研论文写作规范》[1]是美国现代语言协会(MLA)论述格式规范的英语科研论文的权威指导用书。其主要内容为:选择论文题目、使用图书馆(包括联网信息管理系统,各种检索工具及参考书);使用因特网资源查找资料出处,评估网上资料出处的可靠性;避免剽窃;撰写有效的文献目录和提纲,撰写草稿;常用的写作指南和工具;拼写、标点、字体格式,人名和数字的处理,引用著作/作品的标题和名称,引文、英语以外其他语言的处理;科研论文的具体格式(包括打印格式、纸张、页面、空距、页眉/页脚、页码、表格和插图、更改与插入、装订等);运用MLA格式规范在论文后列出资料出处,包括参考书目及其格式、词条、索引;在论文中引用原始资料的记录方法;运用缩写形式的具体写法。这些内容涵盖了英语论文写作规范的全部要求。

普通高等教育面向21世纪“九五”国家教委重点教材之一《英语论文写作与发表》[2]以探讨论文写作为主,兼及与等有关的学术交流。写作部分以专业学术论文的基本组织结构为主体,内容包括论文标题/作者/单位/关键词、摘要、引言、正文、讨论/结论、致谢/参考文献/附录、以及修订文稿等项目;每个项目均包括该项的主要功能、语言特点、写作要求、实例分析等写作技能。

这两本书是我国高等院校师生和研究人员应该学习掌握和遵循的英语论文国际规范,也是科研成果走向世界必须遵循的规范。对培养学习者的英语论文写作能力和运用英语进行国际交流的实际能力具有较强的实用性[3]。

2.3授课方式

本科生专业外语课多数是以“老师在课堂上讲讲单词、读读课文、翻译一下比较难的句子”为模板的,学生收获甚浅。因此有条件的学校应尽可能地让具有丰富的专业英语论文写作经验或在英美高等院校或科研机构学习工作两年以上的老师来上专业英语论文写作课,并且可尝试新的教学方法和手段。张萍[4]的创新教学法包括启发式教学法、讨论式教学法、开放式教学法及发现式教学法等,值得学习借鉴。

3结束语

英语论文范文第8篇

关键词:科技英语论文写作;定义;叙述

中图分类号:H315 文献标识码:A

文章的主体是科技论文的核心部分,是主题思想的展开和论述。作者可根据需要在文章中加小标题,将主体内容分为几个部分进行论述。科技论文的英文写作通常把每段的主体句(Topic Sentence)放在段落的第一句,全段围绕主体句论述,定义与叙述是科技论文写作中又一种常用的写作方法。

一、定义(Definition)

(一)Introduction

When making a hypothesis(假说)or other statement, scientists must make sure that they will beunderstood by other researchers. Misunderstandings occur when there are different concepts of what is being discussed.

A definition answers the question, “What is it?” Sometimes a definition is necessary because a word or concept has more than one meaning. For example, whether carbon is a metal or nonmetal depends on how you define carbon. At other times, a definition is required because a term is being used in a special way. For example, physicists use the terms work and energy in ways that are more specific than their common meanings. A definition should be complete enough to include all the items in the category yet narrow enough to eliminate items that do not belong. The Greek philosopher Plato once defined man as a two-legged creature that has no feathers. The problem with Plato's definition was that it did not distinguish a man from other two-legged creatures without feathers. Communication between researchers is dependent on precise definitions of substances, concepts, processes, and ideas.

Greek philosopher Plato 希腊哲学家帕拉图

(二)Sentence patterns

Sentence pattern 1:

An astronomer is a scientist whostudies the universe.

A barometeris an instrumentthat measures air pressure.

Conductionis a process by which heat is transferred.

A laboratoryis a place whereexperiments are performed.

Physicsis the study ofmatter and energy.

A volt is a unitfor measuring electrical pressure.

Sentence pattern 2:

Mercuryisa liquidmetal.

Asbestosis a fire-resistantmineral.

A dinosaurisa prehistoric reptile.

A monkeyis a small, long -tailedprimate.

(三)Application Examples

be 是

mean 意思是,意味着,意指

denote 表示,指

imply 意思是,意味着

be named 命名为,被称为

Examples:

1. Printers are output devices.

打印机是输出设备。

2. Multiprogramming means the existence of many programs in different parts of main memory at the same time.

多道程序意味着在主存储器的不同部分同时存在着多个程序。

3. Data denotes a collection of facts that can serve as operands to computer program.

数据是指可作为计算机程序操作对象的集合。

4. A “system” implies a good mixture of integrated parts working together to form useful whole.

“系统”意指将协同工作各部分适当地综合而成的一个有效的整体。

5. The first digital computer built in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania was named ENIAC.

第一台计算机是1946年在宾夕法尼亚大学建造的,命名为ENIAC。

二、叙述(Describing)

(一)Introduction

A description serves to introduce a scientist's view of the world. It may describe conditions, results of an experiment, chemical changes, physical movements, or what is seen through a telescope or microscope. A description may also tell the characteristics or distinctive features of an object―how it look, sounds, tastes, smells, works, or is produced.

The nature of something can be explained by describing it. For example, the concept of an atom is difficult to grasp from a definition alone, but a description of its appearance, detailing its structure and function, makes it easier to visualize.

(二)Sentence patterns

The Nile River is 4,145 miles long.

Mount Everest is 8,848 meters high.

The Dead Sea is 11 miles wide.

The Nile River has a length 4,145 miles.

The Sun has a surface temperature of 11,000°F.

The Grand Canyon has a depth of 5,500 feet.

The color of iodine is purplish black.

The texture of sand is rough and granular.

The orbits of planets are elliptical.

Pluto is relatively small.

Blue stars are extremely hot.

Copper salts are slightly blue in aqueous solutions.

(三)Application Examples

be是

be considered (to be) 被认为是,被看作

be known as 被称为是,被认为是,即

be referred to as 称为,叫做

be thought of as 被认为是

be regarded as 被认为是

Examples:

1.This ability to allow interrupts to interrupt previous interrupts service routines safely are referred to as nested interrupts.

允许某些中断去中断先前的中断服务程序,并能正确运行的能力称为嵌套中断。

2.One of the most important characteristics of a computer is its capability of storing information in its memory long enough to process it.

计算机最重要的特性之一就是具有这样一种能力,即在它的存储器中保存信息时间长到足以对这些信息进行处理。

3.In the majority of applications the computer's capability to store and access large amounts of information plays the dominant part and is considered to be its primary characteristic.

在大部分的应用中,计算机能够存储和访问大量的信息这一特性,起了关键的作用,并被看成是计算机的主要特点。

除了定义 (Definition) 与叙述(Describing)的写作方法以外,科技英语论文常用的写作方法还有:比较(Comparing)、因果(Cause and Effect)、假设(Hypothesizing)、证明(Giving Evidence)、实验(Experiment)、计算(Calculating)、报告(Reporting)、预测(Predicting)等。

参考文献

英语论文范文第9篇

一、主位推进模式

韩礼德(1994)提出了主位和述位的定义及划分方法,他认为主位(theme)是信息的起点,由句首位置来实现,其余部分称为述位(rheme)。[1]Danes(1974)指出,每个语篇及段落都可以看成一个主位的序列,篇章的真正主位结构是主位的承上启下,而篇章中的主位间的所有复杂关系都称为主位推进程序(thematicprogression)。[2]

通过大量的研究,Danes提出四种推进模式,再加上其他学者如徐盛桓(1982)[3]、黄衍(1985)[4]、黄国文(1988)[5]、胡壮麟(1994)[6]、朱永生(1995)[7]所做的研究,共有以下七种主位推进模式:(1)主位同一型,主位相同,述位不同;(2)延续型,上句的述位成为下句的主位;(3)述位同一型,主位不同,述位相同;(4)交叉型,上句的主位成为下句的述位;(5)衍生型,上句提出总主位,然后从总主位派生出几个次主位;(6)主-述作主位型,上句的主位和述位中所表达的信息共同成为下句的主位;(7)述位分离型,上句的述位包含了可派生的述位,分别成为下面小句的主位。本文将根据以上七种基本主位推进模式来分析中英作者撰写的医学英语期刊论文中的主位推进情况。

二、语料研究

(一)语料

本篇文章共收集医学论文80篇,前40篇由英美医学工作者撰写,选自国外医学期刊NewEnglandJournalofMedicine,JournalofAmericanMedicalAssociation,An-nalsofInternalMedicine和BritishMedicalJournal;后40篇由中国医学工作者撰写,选自国内四本英文版医学杂志ChineseMedicalJournal,ChineseMedicalSciencesJournal,JournalofNanjingMedicalUniversity和Jour-nalofCollegesofPLA。同时,这80篇文章都有明显的“IMRD”[8]结构。

(二)分析步骤

本文仅对讨论部分进行分析,原因在于论文的讨论部分是中国作者撰写英语论文时出现问题最多的部分[9]。具体步骤如下:(1)标记讨论部分的小句及其主位和述位;(2)判断主位推进模式;(3)计算各主位推进模式的使用频率,使用频率=某主位推进模式的次数/讨论部分主位推进模式的总数;(4)利用Excel和SPSS软件进行统计分析,检测差异是否存在显著性。

(三)统计结果及分析

通过对80篇文章进行分析,我们得出了主位推进模式的整体分布情况。

表1中英作者医学论文主位推进模式分布情况

主位推进模式英美作者论文百分比中国作者论文百分比

首先,除了前人总结出的七种模式,我们还发现了两种新模式:主-述作述位型模式和总结型模式。下面我们将详细介绍这两种新发现的模式。

从表一中我们可以看出,中英作者撰写的医学论文中主要的主位推进模式的排列顺序相同。延续型比重最大,分别为36.26%和33.52%,接下来是主位一致型、述位一致型和交叉型,而剩下的其它几种方式的排列顺序都存在差异。在英美作者的论文中,其排列顺序是衍生型>主-述作主位型>述位分离型>总结型>主-述作述位型;而在中国作者的论文中,它们的排列顺序是主-述作主位型>衍生型>总结型>述位分离型>主-述作述位型。

根据每篇论文中各主位推进模式的频率,我们利用T-检验来检测中英作者在各主位推进模式的使用上是否存在差异。结果显示,中英作者在主位一致型、延续型、述位一致型、交叉型、主-述作主位型和述位分离型的使用上没有显著差异。接下来,我们主要分析衍生型、主-述位作主位、主-述位作述位和总结型。

衍生型模式是医学英语科研论文中不可忽视的一种推进模式,主要用来描述该研究的strength和limitation。从表1中我们可以看出,衍生型在中英作者论文中的比重都不大,分别为3.42%和2.70%,但T-检验发现两者具有显著差异(t=-2.508,df=38,p=0.017<0.05)。具体来说,英美作者的论文中有23篇文章使用该模式,而中国作者的论文中只有14篇文章使用该模式。

主-述作主位型模式是我们发现的两种新模式中的一种,T-检验显示中英作者在该模式的使用上存在显著差异(t=4.473,p=0.007<0.05),表现为中国作者使用该模式的频率高于英美作者。在该模式中,第一小句中主位和述位所表达的信息共同成为下一小句的述位,它的实现方式主要有两种:一种是信息叠加,一种是指代。如:Resistin(T1)//isexpressedathighlevelinwhiteadiposetissuecomparedwithbrownadiposetissueandothertissueintherat(R1).2Inhumansubjects(T2),//cellsotherthanad-ipocytes(forexample,tissuemacrophages)seemtobere-sponsibleforresistinexpression(R2)..

总结型模式是我们发现的另一种新模式,T-检验显示中英作者在该模式的使用上也有显著差异(t=-2.215,p=0.043<0.05)。在该模式中,前几句的主位和述位中的信息共同成为后一句的主位,表现为后一句的主位是前几句的总结,通常表现为Theseresults/data/figures等,如:Allofthesesubgroupfindings)//shouldbeconsideredhy-pothesis-generating…。

(四)讨论

两种新模式的发现反映了中国作者撰写医学英语论文时存在的翻译痕迹,从而间接证明了中国作者在撰写英语医学论文中受到母语思维的影响,存在语言迁移现象。不同文化由于思维方式的差异,文章的篇章结构也存在不同。中国人具有整体思维的特点,表现在篇章结构的组织上则为曲线式的写作方式,即不直截了当地谈及主题,而是通常开篇先总体描述,然后对问题进行历史回顾,接着才是切入主题,提出观点,展开分析论证,最后得出结论。西方人偏好分析,重视逻辑,因此在谋篇布局上表现为直线式的写作方式。他们写文章习惯开门见山,开篇直接点明主题,然后内容按直线展开,围绕主题层层深入,层层剖析。

三、结语

英语论文范文第10篇

国外专家对学生学习成功的因素通过调查得出了如下结论:在学生学习成功的因素中,良好的学习习惯占30%,兴趣占25%,智力占15%,家庭占5%,其他因素占25%。高效英语复习课堂教学所要求的核心价值取向就是变学生被动学习为自主学习,因为只有自我谋划,自我激励,自我探究,才可能有高效。要想高度自主复习必须要成良好的学习习惯。总复习阶段依然要强化下列学习习惯:课前预习和准备习惯;上课的习惯;复习的习惯;作业的习惯;听、说、读和写的习惯。课外自主学习的习惯。教师要严格要求、反复强化,让学生不断实践,采用良好的学习方法和策略,让良好的复习习惯像鸟的翅膀一样帮助学生高效地自主复习好英语。

二、依纲扣本,中考采用三阶段四板块循环滚动的复习模式

根据《英语课程标准》和《英语中考指南》,三阶段指复习时间分为三个阶段,四板块指单元梳理板块、专项训练板块、综合训练板块和听、说、读、写能力训练板块,它们互相融合互相促进,使知识和能力水平不断循环提升。第一阶段单元梳理板块主要是梳理初中阶段所学的全部的语言知识。牛津英语教材按照话题———结构———功能———情景———任务体系以单元形式编排,所以梳理语言知识以单元作板块来整体复习较合理。按教材顺序以话题和任务为主线,以及他们和功能、语法项目的关系提前分门别类的梳理,归纳四会单词、重点词组、重点句型、语法和课本对话等知识,汇编成讲义发给学生,使学生脑子中有清晰知识体系网络图。第二阶段专项训练复习是对针对名词、冠词、非谓语动词、并列句和复合句等作专项的训练。此阶段的任务主要通过语法线来巩固、深化课本英语知识。第三阶段综合训练板块任务主要是通过专项题型和模拟测试来全面培养学生综合应试能力水平。综合训练也可从英语总复习一开始时就要有计划安排,如一个星期做一套完整的综合试卷或专项题,以便培养整体复习英语的意识。听、说、读、写能力训练板块始终贯穿在整个三个阶段里,要反复有层次地训练,每周要固定时间,保证训练次数和质量,同时做好点拨和评析,传授各种方法和技巧,使知识和能力形成互补,提高复习效率。

三、分层指导,在统一练习同时重视分层的作业布置

英语总复习阶段学生的英语水平已经参差不齐,根据知识掌握程度和学习品质可以分成优秀生,中等生和后进生,其中后进生的英语水平还不如七年级学生的英语水平。那么教师既不能放弃某些学生,也不能一个层次要求所有的学生。只有根据学生个体的学情分层指导和要求才为上策。首先英语语言知识点分层要求可从教材自身出发,对于每个单元,细到梳理知识点,在此基础上进行“淘金”活动,将知识点梳理成金字塔形,将不同的知识点对应于不同层次的学生,分层次分解知识点,对相应层次的学生提出相应的需求。其次要引进竞争机制来分层次优化,根据每位学生的能力,制订标准分,进行奖励,使他们个个有对手,人人有复习目标,人人有危机感,把学习积极性最大限度地调动起来。最后对于后进生特别要多进行情感关怀,根据学生不同情况帮助他们找出名自的薄弱环节,采取人盯人办法,一方面进行面对面辅导;另一方面认真面批他们的练习和试卷,分析他们的错误原因,帮助他们写出正确答案。这样每个层次的学生都相应到达应有的复习水平,提高了复习效率。

四、重视复习反馈、培养自主复习评价能力

在总复习中担当导演的教师除了根据各种反馈信息来评价学生复习英语情况,但老师与学生的空间一般局限于学校和课堂,而且老师所面对的学生有几十名,不可能及时地去评价、指导学生。所以更重要的是要让学生自己去根据反馈来自主评价自己,这样一来学生就能通过自主评价及时自觉地调整自己复习策略。通过建立学生复习档案袋,运用课堂自评表,作业评价表、单元评价表和月评表等形式让学生多自主评价,根据评价反馈出复习中的问题,以便及时调整和补漏。评价的内容包括知识水平、语言技能、复习习惯、复习效果和复习存在的问题等。此时老师一方面通过课堂、学生和家庭等渠道来督促学生自主评价的真实性和自觉性,一方面要通过用激励性、多元化、动态化等评价原则重来激励学生,不断让学生取得“我能行”的成功体验。从而最终通过自主性评价来达到积极、主动地自主性复习,取得英语总复习的最佳效果。

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