The Inevitable Fall: Christopher Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus and the Icarus Myth

[a]　Foreign　Studies　College，　Hunan　Normal　University，　Changsha　410081，　China.

*　Corresponding　author.

Received　19　September　2012；　accepted　27　November　2012

Abstract

With　the　application　of　the　renowned　Canadian　literary　critic　Northrop　Frye’s　theory　of　archetype，　this　thesis　attempts　to　analyze　the　Icarus　myth　in　Doctor　Faustus.　It　compares　the　experience　and　temperament　of　the　protagonist　Faustus　to　those　of　the　Greek　mythological　figure　Icarus.　The　Icarian　plots　or　scenes　appear　resoundingly　in　this　drama.　By　analyzing　these　plots　or　scenes，　this　thesis　tries　to　reveal　the　basic　pattern　in　the　play，　and　to　probe　into　Christopher　Marlowe’s　allusion　to　the　human　weakness.

Key　words：　Christopher　Marlowe；　Doctor　Faustus；　The　Icarus　myth

LI　Li　（2012）.　The　Inevitable　Fall：　Christopher　Marlowe’s　Doctor　Faustus　and　the　Icarus　Myth.　Studies　in　Literature　and　Language，　5（3），　-0.　Available　from：　http：///index.php/sll/article/view/j.sll.1923156320120503.1112

DOI：　http：///10.3968/j.sll.1923156320120503.1112

INTRODUCTION

Christopher　Marlowe，　an　unorthodox　personality，　allegedly　atheistic，　allegedly　homosexual，　is　acknowledged　as　one　of　the　greatest　dramatists　in　the　Renaissance　period　because　of　the　invention　of　English　blank　verse　and　the　creation　of　English　tragedy.　Eliot　termed　him　“the　most　thoughtful，　the　most　blasphemous　（and　therefore　probably　the　most　Christian）　of　his　contemporaries”　（Schuchard，　1999，　p.　140）.　Besides，　Algernon　Charles　Swinburne　（1916）　said　that　among　his　contemporaries，　“Marlowe　stands　high，　and　will　stand　for　ever”　（p.　742）.

Born　in　Canterbury　in　1564，　Marlowe　was　an　actor，　poet　and　playwright　during　the　reign　of　Britain’s　Queen　Elizabeth　I.　Educated　at　Corpus　Christi　College　at　Cambridge　University，　he　received　BA　and　MA　degrees.　Though　Marlowe　achieved　the　excellent　classical　attainments，　he　was　often　drawn　into　the　brawls　on　the　street.　After　leaving　Cambridge，　Marlowe　moved　to　London，　where　he　became　a　playwright　and　led　a　turbulent，　scandal-plagued　life.　On　May　30，　1593，　Marlowe　became　involved　in　a　tavern　brawl　and　was　killed　during　the　quarrel　over　the　bill.　After　his　death，　rumors　and　scandals　were　spread　accusing　him　of　atheism，　treason　and　homosexuality，　and　some　people　believed　that　Marlowe　was　the　victim　of　a　political　murder.　However，　little　evidence　could　support　these　allegations.　Marlowe’s　death　thus　has　become　an　enigma.

Marlowe’s　plays，　characteristically　challenging，　unsettling　and　unconventional，　are　distinctive　for　their　shifting　quality　and　their　refusal　to　allow　for　moral　certainties.　Among　his　plays，　The　Tragic　History　of　Doctor　Faustus　is　the　most　well-known　one　which　contains　these　qualities.　Doctor　Faustus　was　probably　written　in　1592，　although　the　exact　date　of　its　composition　is　uncertain，　since　it　was　not　published　until　a　decade　later.　The　idea　of　an　individual　selling　his　or　her　soul　to　the　devil　for　knowledge　is　an　old　motif　in　Christian　folklore.　In　this　drama，　Faustus，　the　protagonist，　enters　into　a　pact　with　the　devil　for　the　purpose　of　seeking　genuine　knowledge.　He　calls　up　Mephistopheles　and　makes　a　compact　to　surrender　his　soul　to　the　devil　after　twenty-four　years，　during　which　time　Mephistopheles　will　supply　him　with　anything　he　demands.　As　the　hour　approaches，　Faustus　is　unable　or　unwilling　to　take　the　advice　of　others　and　repent　of　his　sins，　thus　causing　his　hellish　fall，　the　Icarian　tragedy.　This　thesis　compares　the　experience　and　the　temperament　of　Faustus　to　those　of　the　Greek　mythological　figure　Icarus　and　tries　to　discuss　the　Icarian　plots　or　scenes　in　Doctor　Faustus.

1. THE　ICARUS　MYTH　AND　NORTHROP　FRYE’S　THEORY　OF　ARCHETYPE

Icarus　was　the　son　of　the　master　craftsman　Daedalus.　King　Minos　of　Crete　imprisoned　Daedalus　and　Icarus　in　the　Labyrinth　to　punish　Daedalus　for　helping　the　hero　Theseus　to　kill　the　monster　called　the　Minotaur　and　to　escape　with　Minos’　daughter，　Ariadne.　Daedalus　knew　that　Minos　controlled　any　escape　routes　by　land　or　sea，　but　Minos　could　not　prevent　an　escape　by　flight.　So　Daedalus　used　his　skills　to　build　wings　for　himself　and　Icarus.　He　used　wax　and　string　to　fasten　feathers　to　reeds　of　varying　lengths　to　imitate　the　curves　of　birds’　wings.　Finally，　Daedalus　succeeded　in　his　escape；　however，　Icarus　fell　into　the　sea　and　died　since　he　flew　so　high　that　the　sun　melted　his　wax　wings.　The　Icarus　myth　runs　through　Doctor　Faustus，　which　tells　us　the　inevitable　fall　of　the　poor　scholar.

According　to　Alan　Watts　（1971），　“Myth　is　to　be　defined　as　a　complex　of　stories

some　no　doubt　fact，　and　some　fantasy

which，　for　various　reasons，　human　beings　regard　as　demonstrations　of　the　inner　meaning　of　the　universe　and　of　human　life”　（p.　7）.　In　this　regard，　myth　is　equivalent　to　archetypes　since　many　critics　see　archetypes　as　linked　to　real　life

to　universal　human　experience，　the　human　psyche，　and　the　human　culture.　Moreover，　they　claim　that　archetypes　import　powerful　ideas　to　works　of　literature，　ideas　that　resonate　subliminally　and　emotionally　with　readers.　Then　what　is　archetype？　Northrop　Frye　（1912-1991），　the　preeminent　advocate　of　archetypal　criticism，　defined　archetype　as　“the　recurring　use　of　certain　images　or　image　cluster”　in　literature　（Frye，　1971，　p.　23）.　But，　broadly　speaking，　archetypes　can　be　defined　as　any　repeated　patterns　in　literature，　whether　of　plot，　character，　themes，　settings，　or　images.　In　Frye’s　best-known　work，　Anatomy　of　Criticism，　he　“attempts　to　show　that　all　of　literature　is　bound　together　by　a　structure　of　archetypes，　which　arise　from　human　experiences，　wishes，　and　needs”　（Griffith，　2006，　p.　175）.　In　Frye’s　system，　the　organizing　principles　that　give　literature　coherence　and　structure　are　derived　from　the　archetypal　imagery　found　in　the　Bible　and　the　myths　of　ancient　Greece.　He　suggests　that　all　literature　is　based　on　displacements　of　these　myths.　Archetypes　are　the　socially-concerned　organizing　forms　and　patterns　of　literature　that　originate　in　myth　and　which　unify　and　reveal　literature　as　an　imaginatively-inhabitable　world.　Therefore，　archetypes　come　from　human　experiences　and　reflect　human　life.　It　can　be　argued　that　at　the　heart　of　all　works　of　literature　are　certain　simple　patterns　which　embody　fundamental　human　concerns，　the　primary　concern　being　the　place　of　people　in　the　natural　world　（Peck　&　Coyle，　1993，　p.　136）.　In　this　sense，　the　Icarus　myth　in　Doctor　Faustus　can　be　regarded　as　an　archetype　to　help　us　see　the　informing　concerns　of　the　play，　how　similar　problems　are　returned　to　again　and　again；　furthermore，　it　let　us　find　the　underlying　pattern　of　Doctor　Faustus　and　appreciate　what　Marlowe　added　to　the　basic　pattern　in　order　to　make　his　work　distinctive.

2. THE　ICARIAN　PLOT　IN　FAUSTUS’　EXPERIENCES―FOUR　TIMES　FALL

At　the　beginning　of　the　play，　the　prologue　links　Doctor　Faustus　to　the　Greek　myth　of　Icarus.　Here，　the　Chorus　not　only　gives　us　background　information　about　Faustus’　life　and　education　but　also　explicitly　tells　us　that　his　swelling　pride　will　lead　to　his　downfall.　More　importantly，　it　compares　Faustus’　desire　to　Icarus’　doomed　attempt　to　fly.　Icarus　did　not　heed　his　father’s　warning　and　flew　too　close　the　sun，　causing　his　wings　melt　and　sending　him　plunging　to　his　death.　In　the　same　way，　the　Chorus　tells　us，　Faustus　will　“mount　above　his　reach”　and　suffer　the　same　fate.　As　a　matter　of　fact，　the　Icarus　story　spreads　through　the　whole　play　and　the　Icarian　plot　recurs　resoundingly　throughout　this　drama.　Faustus　rejects　the　limitations　of　the　external　world　and　experiences　excessive　frustration　and　distress.　And　finally，　he　gets　his　inevitable　fall，　which　is　not　formed　in　one　time，　but　decided　by　his　many　wrong　steps.　Every　time　when　Faustus　makes　a　wrong　decision　or　determines　to　sell　his　soul　to　the　devil　at　the　risk　of　his　life，　there　is　always　somebody，　the　good　angel　or　the　old　man，　who　may　persuade　him　out　of　that　terrible　idea；　nevertheless，　he　does　not　believe　there　is　a　point　of　return　and　refuses　to　repent　and　rejects　to　look　for　God’s　help.　In　this　way，　his　every　misstep　leads　to　his　every　fall，　and　finally，　to　his　last　perdition.　Throughout　the　five　acts，　actually，　the　Icarian　plot　recurs　four　times　and　Faustus　has　gone　through　four　times　fall　and　is　doomed　to　death.　Let　us　discuss　the　four　times　fall　and　the　process　of　his　damnation　in　detail.

To　begin　with，　the　scene　shifts　to　Faustus’　study，　where　he　takes　his　first　wrong　step　in　his　life，　which　leads　to　his　first　fall.　He　says：

These　metaphysics　of　magicians，

And　necromantic　books　are　heavenly.　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　163）

In　the　opening　soliloquy，　Faustus　reflects　on　the　most　rewarding　type　of　scholarship.　He　rejects　Aristotelian　philosophy，　medicine，　law　and　religious　orthodoxy，　finding　a　constraint　at　“the　end　of　every　art”　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　162）.　He　then　dismisses　these　arts　and　fixes　his　mind　on　magic，　which，　when　properly　pursued，　he　believes　will　make　him　“a　mighty　god”　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　163）.　When　Faustus　asks　Wagner，　Faustus’　servant，　to　bring　Valdes　and　Cornelius，　Faustus’　friends，　to　help　him　learn　the　art　of　magic，　a　good　angel　and　an　evil　angel　visit　him.

GOOD　A.　O，　Faustus，　lay　thy　damned　book　aside，

And　gaze　not　on　it　lest　it　tempt　thy　soul，

And　heap　God’s　heavy　wrath　upon　thy　head！

Read，　read　the　Scriptures

that　is　blasphemy.

EVIL　A.　Go　forward，　Faustus，　in　that　famous　art

Wherein　all　Nature’s　treasure　is　contain’d：

Be　thou　on　earth　as　Jove　is　in　the　sky，

Lord　and　commander　of　these　elements.　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　164）

The　good　angel　urges　Faustus　to　set　aside　that　book　of　magic　and　read　the　Bible　instead；　on　the　contrary，　the　evil　angel　encourages　him　to　go　forward　in　his　pursuit　of　the　black　arts.　Here　Faustus　must　make　a　choice　between　these　two　pieces　of　advice.　On　the　one　hand，　provided　he　defers　to　the　good　angel’s　opinions，　he　will　not　be　satisfied　with　the　existing　knowledge.　On　the　other　hand，　if　he　takes　the　evil　angel’s　suggestion，　he　may　achieve　his　ambition.　Obviously，　Faustus　is　going　to　heed　the　evil　angle　since　he　exults　at　the　great　power　that　the　magical　arts　will　bring　to　him.　In　this　case，　Faustus　is　led　astray　by　the　dark　arts　and　makes　his　first　fall.　He　imagines　sending　spirits　to　the　end　of　the　world　to　fetch　him　jewels　and　delicacies，　having　them　teach　him　secret　knowledge，　and　using　magic　to　make　himself　king　of　all　Germany；　he　offers　a　long　list　of　impressive　goals，　including　the　acquisition　of　knowledge，　wealth，　and　political　power，　and　he　believes　that　he　will　achieve　these　once　he　has　mastered　the　black　arts.　Although　it　seems　glorious，　Faustus　does　not　know　that　he　is　losing　his　way　in　the　pursuit　of　dreams，　thus　causing　the　Icarian　fall　and　being　doomed　to　failure.

Another　fall　of　Faustus　appears　in　Act　Two，　Scene　One.　This　time，　Faustus　commits　the　most　serious　error　in　his　life

he　sells　his　soul　to　the　devil　for　seeking　infinite　power.　Before　the　bargain，　the　good　and　evil　angels　appear　again.

GOOD　A.　Sweet　Faustus，　leave　that　execrable　art.

FAUSTUS.　Contrition，　prayer，　repentance

what　of　them？

GOOD　A.　O，　they　are　means　to　bring　thee　unto　heaven！

EVIL　A.　Rather　illusions，　fruits　of　lunacy，

That　makes　men　foolish　that　do　trust　them　most.

GOOD　A.　Sweet　Faustus，　think　of　heaven　and　heavenly　things.

EVIL　A.　No，　Faustus，　think　of　honour　and　of　wealth.　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　174）

Faustus　wavers　in　his　conviction　to　sell　his　soul　and　the　good　and　evil　angels　enter　into　another　controversy.　The　good　one　tells　him　to　give　up　his　plan　and　think　of　the　“heavenly　things”，　but　he　dismisses　the　good　angel’s　words，　saying　that　God　does　not　love　him.　The　evil　one　let　Faustus　think　of　“honour　and　wealth”，　and　he　believes　that　it　is　worthy　dealing　with　the　devil　since　he　can　gain　much　wealth　through　it.　Faustus　then　calls　back　Mephistopheles，　who　tells　him　that　Lucifer　has　accepted　his　offer　of　his　soul　in　exchange　for　twenty-four　years　of　service.　Hereto，　Faustus　totally　loses　his　correct　direction　in　achieving　his　goal　and　makes　his　second　Icarian　fall.

Faustus　decides　to　make　the　bargain，　and　he　stabs　his　arm　in　order　to　write　the　contract　with　his　blood；　however，　his　blood　congeals，　which　seems　to　rebel　against　the　choice　that　he　has　made.　The　inscription　Homo　fuge　（Man　fly）　appears　on　his　arm.　In　fact，　Homo　fuge　is　an　advice　warning　to　fly　unto　God.　Though　Faustus　feels　some　hesitation　in　signing　the　infernal　pact　and　wonders　if　his　own　blood　is　attempting　to　warn　him　not　to　sell　his　soul，　he　still　makes　the　wrong　choice　at　last.　Faustus　wants　to　repent　repeatedly　but　each　time　runs　in　the　opposite　direction.　Sometimes　it　is　his　yearning　to　knowledge　and　wealth　that　prevents　him　from　turning　to　God；　but　some　other　times　it　seems　to　be　the　instigation　of　the　evil　angel　and　the　manipulation　by　Mephistopheles　that　let　him　loses　confidence　to　be　rescued.　After　signing　the　compact　of　selling　his　soul，　Faustus　degenerates　thoroughly.

The　third　time　that　Faustus　falls　from　heaven　comes　after　his　resolutely　severing　relations　with　God.　In　fact，　Faustus　laments　his　state　after　signing　with　devil.　He　finds　reverence　for　the　glory　of　creation　but　also　grief　at　his　loss　of　it：

When　I　behold　the　heavens，　then　I　repent

And　curse　thee，　wicked　Mephistopheles，

Because　thou　hast　depriv’d　me　of　those　joys.　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　180）

Faustus　once　again　wavers　and　leans　toward　repentance.　The　good　and　evil　angels　make　their　third　appearance　and　enter　into　the　verbal　duels.　Faustus　begins　to　believe　that　“Ay，　God　will　pity　me，　if　I　repent”　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　180）.　Mephistopheles　immediately　tempts　Faustus　to　stop　the　repentance.　Although　Faustus’　heart　is　“hardened”　and　he　apparently　“cannot　repent”　and　the　bad　angel’s　words　seem　all　too　true　that　“Faustus　never　shall　repent”　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　180），　the　minute　Mephistopheles　leaves　Faustus　alone，　he　turns　his　mind　to　God　and　again　he　wonders　if　it　is　too　late　for　him　to　repent.　The　good　and　evil　angels　enter　into　once　more，　and　the　good　one　tells　him　“never　too　late”　if　he　can　repent.　Faustus　begins　to　appeal　to　Christ　for　mercy：　“Ah，　Christ，　my　Saviour，　/Seek　to　save　distressed　Faustus’　soul”　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　182）.　This　repentance　is　such　a　threat　to　the　pact　that　Lucifer，　making　his　first　appearance，　decides　to　handle　the　breach　of　the　rules　with　a　deception　by　telling　Faustus　that　“Christ　cannot　save　thy　soul，　for　he　is　just”　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　182）.　Faustus　believes　Lucifer　and　rejects　the　good　angel’s　kind　exhortation.　Then　Lucifer　orders　Faustus　to　cease　thinking　about　God　and　think　only　of　the　devil.　Afraid　and　frightened，　Faustus　once　again　pledges　satanic　fidelity：

Nor　will　I　henceforth：　pardon　me　in　this，

And　Faustus　vows　never　to　look　to　heaven，

Never　to　name　God，　or　to　pray　to　him，

To　burn　his　Scriptures，　slay　his　ministers，

And　make　my　spirits　pull　his　churches　down.　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　182）

Hereto，　Faustus　breaks　off　the　relations　with　God　completely.　He　once　again　misses　the　chance　of　repentance　and　salvation，　which　brings　about　his　third　Icarian　fall.　As　a　matter　of　fact，　all　the　worldly　knowledge，　which　Faustus　has　so　strongly　desired，　points　inexorably　to　God.　The　omniscient　and　omnipotent　God　masters　the　whole　world.　More　ironically，　the　pact　he　has　signed　with　devil　detaches　him　from　God　thoroughly.　Faustus　has　nowhere　to　go　but　down.

The　last　Icarian　fall　of　Faustus　appears　in　the　last　act.　Twenty-four　years　pass　remarkably　quickly.　Faustus’　magical　ability　seems　more　and　more　like　cheap　hocus-pocus.　Meanwhile，　he　loses　interest　in　the　study　of　astronomy，　the　universe　and　the　earth　gradually.　By　the　end　of　the　play，　his　main　pleasure　is　to　play　practical　jokes　and　to　produce　impressive　illusions　for　nobles，　which　is　a　far　cry　from　his　ambitious　pursuit　that　he　has　said　before.　He　just　puts　his　power　in　the　place　of　no　consequence.　In　the　last　act，　before　his　doomsday，　Faustus　still　plays　magic　tricks　with　those　scholars.　He　let　“the　admirablest　lady　that　ever　lived”

Helen　crosses　the　stage　to　delight　the　scholars.　At　this　moment，　an　old　man　enters　and　tries　to　persuade　Faustus　to　repent：

Break　heart，　drop　blood，　and　mingle　it　with　tears，

Tears　falling　from　repentant　heaviness，

Of　thy　most　vile　and　loathsome　filthiness，

The　stench　whereof　corrupts　the　inward　soul，

With　such　flagitious　crimes　of　heinous　sin，

As　no　commiseration　may　expel，

But　mercy，　Faustus，　of　thy　Saviour　sweet，

Whose　blood　alone　must　wash　away　thy　guilt.　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　199）

Faustus　is　greatly　perturbed.　Mephistopheles　finds　it　and　immediately　gives　him　a　dagger.　However，　the　kind　old　man　still　persuades　Faustus　to　appeal　to　God　for　mercy.　Therefore，　Faustus　takes　time　“to　ponder　on”　his　sins.　The　result　is　his　another　attempt　at　repentance：　“I　do　repent；　and　yet　I　do　despair”　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　199）.　Even　though　Faustus’　repentance　is　extremely　shallow，　there　is　a　chance　that　Faustus　will　be　truly　saved　even　at　the　end　of　his　life.　For　this　reason，　Mephistopheles　threatens　that　Faustus　will　be　torn　into　pieces　if　he　does　not　reconfirm　his　vow　to　Lucifer.　Having　no　choice，　Faustus　agrees　to　rewrite　the　pact.　Mephistopheles　intensifies　the　urgency　of　the　second　contract：　“Do　it，　then，　quickly，　with　unfeigned　heart，　/Lest　greater　danger　to　attend　thy　drift”　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　200）.　The　final　union　of　Faustus’　soul　with　sin　has　occurred　and　“sin　by　custom”　has　decidedly　grown　into　Faustus’　nature.　Hereto，　he　degenerates　completely，　which　leads　to　his　final　downfall，　beyond　redemption.　Then　Faustus　asks　Mephistopheles　to　punish　the　good　old　man　for　trying　to　dissuade　him　from　continuing　in　Lucifer’s　service，　and　what　is　worse，　in　his　extreme　moments，　Faustus　thinks　of　the　illusion　of　Helen　rather　than　his　own　life.　At　this　moment，　any　further　attempts　at　repentance　will　only　be　“idle　fantasies”　produced　by　a　“laboring　brain”　trying　to　“over-reach　the　devil”.　Both　the　good　angel　and　the　bad　angel　depart，　and　Faustus　is　left　with　the　ultimate　horror：　the　terrible　fall　which　will　make　him　never　come　back　from　hell.

Hereto，　Faustus　has　gone　through　the　Icarian　fall　for　four　times.　It　is　himself　who　makes　his　way　toward　hell　step　by　step.　One　false　step　may　bring　eternal　remorse.　However，　in　the　Christian　doctrine，　we　know　that　“If　we　confess　our　sins，　he　is　faithful　and　just　to　forgive　us　our　sins，　and　to　cleanse　us　from　all　unrighteousness”　（Ι　John　1：9）.　No　matter　what　terrible　things　one　has　done，　as　long　as　he/she　can　repent　genuinely，　God　will　save　him/her.　Obviously，　Faustus　does　not　know　this　and　he　just　reads　the　lines　that　“the　reward　of　sin　is　death，”　and　that　“if　we　say　that　we　have　no　sin，　/We　deceive　ourselves，　and　there　is　no　truth　in　us”　（Ι　John　1：8）.　Faustus　misunderstands　that　the　purpose　of　religion　is　to　try　to　forgive　rather　than　to　punish.　In　this　way，　on　the　one　hand，　he　attempts　to　repent　again　and　again；　on　the　other，　he　is　afraid　of　not　being　forgiven.　Consequently，　Faustus　dose　not　pluck　up　his　courage　to　mend　his　ways　and　saves　himself　from　hell.　Finally，　he　falls　down　from　the　heavens　like　Icarus.

3. THE　REASONS

FAUSTUS’　ICARIAN　TEMPERAMENTS　FOR　THE　FOUR　TIMES　FALL

Faustus　is　a　contradictory　character，　full　of　ambition　but　lack　of　proper　action.　In　order　to　get　knowledge，　wealth　and　power，　he　is　willing　to　pay　the　final　price

his　soul

to　Lucifer　in　exchange　for　supernatural　strength.　His　ambitions　are　so　grand　that　we　cannot　help　being　impressed.　However，　Faustus　is　unable　to　embrace　his　dark　path　wholeheartedly　but　is　also　unwilling　to　admit　his　sins，　constantly　wavering　about　whether　or　not　to　repent.　Ultimately，　he　cannot　escape　the　same　fate　like　Icarus.　It　is　his　swelling　pride，　endless　desire　and　willful　blindness　which　lead　him　to　his　four　times　fall.

First　and　foremost，　it　is　Faustus’　Icarian　pride　which　brings　about　his　final　damnation.　At　the　very　beginning　of　the　play，　the　prologue　tells　us　that　“Till　swoln　with　cunning，　of　a　self-conceit，　/His　waxen　wings　did　mount　above　his　reach”　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　161）.　Despite　all　of　his　advanced　studies　and　perceptive　questions，　Faustus　is　completely　unaware　of　his　ignorance　and　blinded　by　his　self-conceit.　In　his　opening　soliloquy，　Faustus　talks　about　various　fields　of　knowledge.　He　considers　that　logic　is　not　scholarly　enough　for　him　and　rejects　Aristotelian　logic　as　a　subject　worthy　of　his　attention.　Then　Faustus　could　be　satisfied　as　a　physician　only　if　he　had　the　god-like　power　to　grant　immortality

to　“make　men　to　live　eternally，/Or，　being　dead，　raise　them　to　life　again”　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　162）.　However，　he　thinks　that　medicine　is　too　restrictive　for　him　with　his　ambitious　goals.　And，　after　thinking　about　it，　Faustus　believes　his　disposition　is　also　unsuited　for　the　law，　for　he　has　neither　the　patience　nor　the　interpretative　skills　to　interest　himself　in　what　he　calls　“paltry　legacies”.　The　law　is　too　petty，　dealing　with　trivial　matter　rather　than　larger　ones，　so　he　dismisses　it.　Theology，　the　study　of　the　presence　and　attributes　of　god　and　religious　doctrines，　seems　to　offer　wider　vistas，　but　when　Faustus　reads　“The　reward　of　sin　is　death”　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　163），　he　rejects　it　and　concentrates　his　attention　on　magic.　Faustus　believes　that　he　has　commanded　every　art　and　these　arts　do　not　meet　his　needs，　only　supernatural　strength　can　bring　him　great　joy.　In　this　way，　with　swelling　pride，　Faustus　has　embarked　on　a　road　of　no　return.　Because　of　his　self-conceit，　Faustus　often　uses　the　magic　power　to　play　tricks　on　and　take　revenge　on　other　people.　For　instance，　a　knight，　named　Benvolio，　does　not　believe　that　Faustus　can　perform　the　feat　as　that　the　goddess　Diana　has　transformed　Actaeon　into　a　stag.　Out　of　pride，　Faustus　conjures　a　pair　of　antlers　onto　the　head　of　Benvolio　and　tells　him　to　have　more　respect　for　scholars　in　the　future.　These　are　many　such　examples.　Faustus　is　such　a　tragic　character，　who　rejects　God　because　of　his　Icarian　pride　but　suffers　for　it　eternally.

In　addition，　Faustus’　endless　desire　for　knowledge，　power　and　sex　is　the　second　reason　for　his　inevitable　fall.　We　know　that　Icarus　could　have　escaped　from　Crete，　but　he　did　not　listen　to　the　advice　of　his　father，　Daedalus.　Desire　prompted　him　to　raise　the　height　of　his　flight.　Consequently，　he　fell　down　into　the　sea　and　died.　Faustus　is　the　same.　Because　of　his　infinite　desire，　he　overindulges　in　necromancy.　First，　in　order　to　get　genuine　knowledge，　Faustus　studies　the　magic　books　carefully　and　constantly，　hoping　that　he　can　acquire　the　truth　that　he　seeks　for　through　the　supernatural　power，　but　when　Faustus　knows　that　Mephistopheles　cannot　answer　his　philosophical　questions，　he　feels　disappointed，　thus　causing　his　hesitation　in　repentance　to　God.　Furthermore，　desire　for　power　makes　Faustus　take　a　series　of　actions　via　magic.　He　plays　tricks　on　people，　conjures　up　grapes，　and　explores　the　cosmos　on　a　dragon.　He　thinks　that　he　is　a　demigod，　and　wishes　to　reshape　the　map　of　the　world.　However，　gaining　absolute　power　corrupts　Faustus　by　making　him　mediocre　and　by　transforming　his　boundless　ambition　into　a　meaningless　delight.　Finally，　Faustus’　sexual　desire　makes　him　lost　in　the　trap　of　necromancy.　Before　the　end　of　his　life，　Faustus　begins　to　realize　the　terrible　nature　of　the　bargain　he　has　made.　Although　he　has　a　sense　of　foreboding，　Faustus　still　uses　magic　to　meet　his　libido　and　conjures　up　Helen.　He　looks　for　transcendence　in　a　woman，　who　is　just　an　illusion　and　not　real　flesh　and　blood.　He　seeks　heavenly　grace　in　Helen’s　lips，　which　can，　at　best，　offer　only　earthly　pleasure.　What　is　worse，　when　he　hopes　for　escaping　damnation，　he　even　cries　“make　me　immortal　with　a　kiss”　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　200）.　Faustus’　desire　has　become　his　moral　guidance　which　brings　him　into　the　dilemma.　In　the　end，　Faustus　makes　the　tragic　choice　and　follows　his　misfortunate　desire　to　the　place　of　his　own　demise.

Last　but　not　least，　blindness　serves　as　one　of　Faustus’　defining　characters　throughout　the　play，　which　is　the　third　reason　for　his　Icarian　downfall.　For　one　thing，　when　Faustus　meets　Mephistopheles　for　the　first　time，　he　thinks　that　Mephistopheles　is　too　ugly　to　attend　on　him，　and　he　insists　that　Mephistopheles　should　reappear　as　a　Franciscan　friar，　which　is　a　symbol　of　his　escape　from　reality.　Then　Mephistopheles　tells　Faustus　the　horrors　of　hell　and　urges　him　not　to　sell　his　soul，　but　Faustus　dismisses　Mephistopheles’　words　and　accuses　him　of　lacking　“manly　fortitude”.　For　another，　after　selling　his　soul　to　the　devil，　Faustus　attempts　to　repent　repeatedly.　Therefore，　Lucifer　comes　into　our　sight　to　prevent　Faustus　from　repentance.　Meanwhile，　he　shows　Faustus　the　seven　deadly　sins.　When　Faustus　sees　the　parade　of　them，　he　feels　satisfied　and　even　cries　“O，　this　feeds　my　soul！　/How　happy　were　I　then”　（Griffith，　2000，　p.　184）.　He　just　treats　these　as　sources　of　entertainment　rather　than　of　moral　warning.　These　scenes　show　Faustus’　willful　blindness，　and　it　will　persist　until　the　end　of　his　life.　Perkins　describes　him　in　a　sermon　delivered　in　1593：

a　sinner　in　his　first　estate　...　hate　a　veil　before　his　face　so　that　he　seeth　nothing.　...，　the　night　of　impenitence　and　the　mist　of　ignorance　so　blinding　his　eyes　that　he　seeth　not　the　narrow　bridge　of　this　life，　from　which　if　he　slide　he　falls　immediately　into　the　bottomless　pit　of　hell.　（Princiss，　2002，　p.　256）

These　words　depict　Faustus’　existing　state　of　affairs　and　his　irreversible　terrible　fate　exactly.　All　of　his　encounters　and　predicaments　are　due　to　his　willful　blindness.　No　wonder　Faustus　has　suffered　the　same　fate　like　Icarus，　who　did　not　know　the　wax　wings　might　be　melted　by　the　sun　and　raised　the　height　of　flight　blindly，　thus　causing　the　unnecessary　death.

To　conclude，　the　Icarian　tragedy　of　Faustus　is　a　consequence　of　his　characters：　proud，　blind　and　greedy.　The　force　of　his　own　nature　compels　him　to　the　study　of　magic，　and　he　is　unable　to　resist.　Though　the　good　angel　and　the　pious　old　man　dissuade　Faustus　from　necromancy，　he　does　not　follow　their　advice　and　signs　the　evil　compact　with　the　devil.　During　his　twenty-four　year　odyssey，　Faustus　has　to　learn　what　Mephistopheles　already　knows.　He　must　pay　for　his　pride，　blindness　and　greediness.　In　fact，　the　good　angel　or　the　old　man，　and　the　evil　angel　are　reflections　of　Faustus’　own　mental　processes.　These　allegorical　figures　objectify　the　inner　conflict　in　Faustus　and　reflect　the　state　of　mind　of　him.　Maybe　they　are　the　good　or　bad　judgment　in　Faustus’　mind，　symbolizing　his　divided　will，　part　of　which　wants　to　do　good　and　part　of　which　is　sunk　in　sin.　In　this　sense，　Faustus’　character　determines　his　destiny.　Like　Icarus，　he　falls　down　from　the　heavens　and　is　doomed　to　death.

CONCLUSION

Through　analyzing　the　details　and　reasons　of　Faustus’　four　times　fall，　we　know　that　the　Icarus　myth　can　be　a　archetype　in　this　drama，　expressing　the　fatal　weakness　of　human　beings　that　they　can　find　a　pattern　in　human　life　that　resembles　the　pattern　of　nature.　The　Icarus　story，　serving　as　a　archetype，　determines　the　form　of　Doctor　Faustus.　Furthermore，　the　Icarian　plot　recurs　resoundingly　throughout　the　play　and　tells　us　the　basic　pattern　that　a　man　is　doomed　to　death　because　of　the　fatal　weakness　in　his　character.　Hereto，　we　can　call　archetypal　criticism　myth　criticism.　The　Icarus　myth　acts　as　a　guide　to　let　us　have　a　better　understanding　of　Doctor　Faustus.

Faustus　is　a　contradictory　character，　capable　of　tremendous　eloquence　and　possessed　of　awesome　ambition，　yet　his　overly　pride，　willful　blindness　and　endless　desire　make　him　go　astray.　He　rejects　all　the　medieval　authorities

Aristotle　in　logic，　Galen　in　medicine，　Justinian　in　law，　and　the　Bible　in　religion

and　decides　to　strike　out　on　his　own.　To　some　degree，　he　is　regarded　as　the　first　character　on　the　Renaissance　stage.　However，　this　Renaissance　man　cannot　escape　the　terrible　fate　and　falls　down　to　the　hell.　Is　Faustus’　fate　inevitable　or　is　he　given　free　will　which　he　fatally　misuses？　In　fact，　Faustus　represents　the　common　people.　Everyone　is　Faustus.　To　watch　him　on　progress　through　his　life　is　to　reincarnate　in　him　the　desires，　conflicts，　and　temptations　which　confront　modern　man　as　well.　For　us，　we　must　be　aware　of　our　meager　abilities，　our　imperfect　intellect　and　our　inadequate　knowledge.　By　proper　methods，　we　can　achieve　our　own　values.　Doctor　Faustus　is　of　great　importance　in　literature　and　it　continues　to　enrich　our　horizons.　That　is　why　it　still　compels　many　critics’　attention　with　such　intensity.

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