A Study of Reading Strategy Awareness Among College English Major at Taif Univer

[a]Associate Professors of Applied Linguistics， Department of Foreign Languages， College of Arts， University of Taif， Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Ph.D. in applied linguistics from Wales （UK） University. Has been teaching for more than 20 years in Canada and Middle East.

Research interests are in second language acquisition and English as a second language. He is an associate professor at Taif University in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

[b]Associate Professors of Applied Linguistics， Department of Foreign Languages， College of Arts， University of Taif， Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Has done the post graduate degrees at the University of Wales. Has since worked at a number of the Universities and colleges such as the University of Michigan and Henry Ford Community college in the United States， University of Nizwa in Oman， and Taif University in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Major interest is Language Acquisition.

* Corresponding author.

Received 17 May 2013； accepted 6 August 2013

Abstract

Reading comprehension for English as Foreign Language learners is a very complex process to understand how readers sort the logic of written symbols， so it is crucial that the progression of reading comprehension and the dynamics leading to the product of this process be understood properly. There is no lack of studies on reading comprehension aiming to explain its nature and trying to show how the task of comprehension is accomplished. Research has shown how Arab students struggle with reading problems encountered with both bottom-up and top-down processes. Hence， these students are not only slow readers， inefficient and unskilled in terms of comprehension. （Al-Mahrooqi & Asante， 2012） While much research is devoted to reading as such， little is available on how Arab students challenge when doing this. The researcher will inspect the Saudi college EFL learners’ use of three reading strategies （cognitive， metacognitive， compensation strategies）， and their control on the relationships between reading strategy use and their English reading comprehension. The present paper is an effort to deliver a base for better understanding the relationship between reading comprehension and reading strategies. The results of this paper will be implemented for better reading strategy instruction at Taif University， KSA.

Key words： Reading comprehension； Interaction； Second language reading； Cognitive； Metacognitive； Compensation strategies EFL/ESL

Abdulamir Alamin， Sawsan Ahmed （2013）. A Study of Reading Strategy Awareness Among College English Major at Taif University， KSA； and Factors affecting Reading Comprehension. Studies in Literature and Language， 7（3）， 12-28. Available from： http：//www. /index.php/sll/article/view/j.sll.1923156320130703.2842 DOI： http：///10.3968/j.sll.1923156320130703.2842

Literature Review

1. LEARNING ENGLISH AS SECOND LANGUAGE

A variety of factors may influence foreign or second language learning， including teaching materials， syllabus， teaching methods， differences in personality， learners’motivation， attitudes as well as intelligence on language acquisition （O’Sullivan， 2010）.

A successful language learner will be able to adjust his strategies to his own cognition style and learning strategies. Students will try to seize every opportunity to practice and relieve his depression， hence achieving better efficiency and result. Personality influences the choice of language learning strategies. Teachers should find out students ‘differences in personality， establish and perfect different teaching targets based and take specific measures for different students （Ellis， 1994）.

Passionate factors influence the result of second language acquisition. To Swain and Lapkin （2005）， learning motivation is a strong internal drive for language learning and with attitudes they are closely associated with language learning strategies. Teachers should encourage students to have more creative thinking in order to develop their internal potentials， stimulate their diversified language learning motivation finally.

Schoonen et al （1998） believes that a pleasant， natural and harmonious language learning environment has to come in planning of the teaching contents， teaching methods， teaching organization and teaching supervision. Teachers put excessive importance on the cognitive factors of second language learning while neglecting the role of emotional factors， learners have no way to release their emotions and express their feelings， resulting in the separation of cognition from emotion in English teaching.

Rational factors influence learners’ achievements in second language acquisition. According to Anderson（1999）， memory ability， imitation ability， analysis and judgment ability as well as a potential ability for language learning are all important to develop students’ intelligence， expand their views， develop their potentials and improve their cognitive abilities

Second language theories suggest that the nature of language input， learners’ acquisition process as well the rules of language acquisition should be taken into consideration when establishing teaching plans in order to set up a student-centered language learning pattern and to design specific class activities and teaching skills（Gardner， 1975）.

According to language acquisition principles， varieties of teaching methods can be used. The indirect method can be adopted. Henceforth， objects， gestures， expressions as well as actions can be used to enrich language learning environment. Listening-speaking method can be used where simulation， response， imitation and real life listening and speaking practice will enable students to listen and imitate to learn pure pronunciation and intonation. The audio-visual method or the situational method is another method in which more importance is attached to language acquisition rules， a large amount of language input， the creation of teaching situation as well as the importance of vision in language learning. Finally， the communicative method can also be used where more emphasis on oral practice， employing real and natural language， cultivating students’ communicative abilities to a natural process of language acquisition will take place（O’Sullivan， 2010）.

Without any doubt， proper and flexible English teaching methods help to create language environment， to stimulate， students to take an active part in communicative activities so as to expand their language input methods and channels and improve their language acquisition efficiency.

Ellis R. （1994） pointed out that the failure to provide with opportunities to communicate naturally will separate learners from the main channel to gain language materials and hence to hold up the acquisition process. Language learning is a systematic process involving teachers， students and teaching materials.

In a word， second language learning research and English teaching are complementary to each other. Therefore， based on second language acquisition theories， teachers should establish necessary and real environment for students by speaking the target language at class， creating role-play activities based on specific situations， organizing and instructing students’ group discussion and debates， hence promoting students’ cooperative learning， providing a pleasant language acquisition environment， relieving students’ anxiety and improving their success rate in language acquisition.

2. THE POWER OF THE MOTHER TONGUE

Skuttnab-Kangas （2000） pointed out that mother tongue preservation can take two forms. It could be when pupils are given classes in their mother tongue， directed at developing formal language skills， including full literacy. Or pupils are educated through the medium of their mother tongue. Examples of the first one are the Heritage Language Program established in Ontario， Canada. Chinese heritage community language schools in USA are another example （Yang， 2004）. Examples of programmes where learners are educated through the medium of their mother tongue can be found in the Finnish-medium classes for Finnish migrant workers in Sweden. Skuttnab-Kangas，（1988， p. 563） commented： ‘Despite the small recent improvements， it seems clear that Western countries have so far not respected what should be basic linguistic human rights， especially in education， and that the world so far does little to prevent linguistic and cultural genocide’.

There is also evidence that mother tongue preservation settings result in considerable learning success They are considered positive factors for appropriate cultural content in teaching materials）， expect to see low anxiety， high internal motivation， self-confidence in the learners， success in developing full control of the L1， multicultural awareness， and a high level of proficiency in the L2（Skuttnab-Kangas， 1988）.

Mother tongue keeps support for L2 learning in two main ways. First， it ensures that the L2 is a second rather than a replacing language and thus results in learners developing a positive self-identity. As Spolsky noted， understanding L2 is closely tied up with one’s personality and being forced to learn an L2 as a replacement for the L1 is a ‘direct assault on identity’ （1986， p. 188）. Mother tongue maintenance， then， is more likely to result in the positive attitudes needed for successful L2 development.

It has been noted that whereas L2 communicative abilities are normally learned by immigrant learners in about two years， it can take up to seven years for the same learners to approach scores for L2 academic skills.

Support the importance of L1 academic skills as a basis for successful development of L2 by Swain and Lapkin，（2005）. It also showed that literacy in a community language benefits the learning of a second.

To sum up， Mother tongue can support， fail to support or actively hinder someone who is learning or using the vocabulary of a second language. This may happen： 1） when a learner acquires new vocabulary， 2） when he or she tries to recall and use previously-learnt vocabulary， and 3） when he or she tries to construct a complex word or expression that has not already been learnt as a unit.

3. READING STRATEGY

According to Barnet （1989）， reading is a shared practice combining top-down and bottom-up processing. Students have to use the appropriate reading skills or strategies if they want to increase their reading comprehension they should. Barnett （1989） defines the term strategy as an approach to a text to make sense of what they read. Reading comprehension requires combination of multiple strategies and skills. Those strategies involve memory， cognitive， compensation， metacognitive， affective， social， and test-taking strategies （Oxford， 1990 Zhang， 1993）. In this paper cognitive， metacognitive and Compensation strategies will be revised.

3.1 Cognitive Strategies

Cognitive Strategies to Winstead （2004） are those take into consideration the environment or situational context in which the leaner learns， the learner’s knowledge base， intrinsic motivation， in addition to improving the learner’s ability to process information. Examples of cognitive strategies include the skills of foretelling based on earlier knowledge， examining text， organization by looking for detailed forms， self-questioning， making a summary， taking summaries by writing down the main notion or exact points， translating， and transferring （Chang and Huang， 2001）. These strategies are related to academic performance in the classroom. They can be simple like recall of information， words， or lists， or to more complex tasks that require comprehension of the information like understanding a piece of text） （Lin 2002）. Those cognitive learning strategies fall into three main sets： rehearsal， elaboration， and organizational strategies. Rehearsal strategies involve underlining the text， saying a word or phrase aloud， or using a mnemonic. Though these strategies are passive in nature， they are meant in order to assist students to attend to and then select important textual information and retain this information in working memory. Elaboration strategies include paraphrasing or summarizing the material to be learned， creating analogies， generative note-taking， explaining ideas to others， asking and answering questions about the text. The other type of deeper processing strategy， organizational， includes behaviors such as selecting the main idea from text， outlining the text to be learned， and using a variety of specific techniques for selecting and organizing the ideas in the material. All of these organizational strategies can be used to test and confirm the accuracy of learner’s deeper understanding of the text （Matsumura， 2010）.

Williams and Burden（1997） explain that cognitive strategies are mental processes directly concerned with the processing of information in order to learn， that is for obtaining， storage， recovery or use of information. They are specific learning tasks itself. In general， studies in both L1 and L2 reading research provide two divisions of cognitive strategies as bottom-up and top-down. Goodman（1986） refers to the bottom up model as the common sense notion. In this approach， reading is meant to be a process of decoding identifying letter， words， phrases， and then sentences in order to get the meaning. On the other hand， top-down model advocates the selection of the fewest and most productive elements from a text so as to make sense of it （Lynch & Hudson， 1988） views the reading process as an active psychological guessing game. Top-down rejects the notion that identification of letters to form words， and the derivation of meaning from these words is efficient reading. On the contrary， it assumes that efficient reading requires the readers to make guesses and suggestion about the text content by relating the new information to their past knowledge and by using as few language clues as possible. It is further assumed that the readers can check whether the hypothesis are correct or not by sampling the text.

Social and cognitive factors influencing the reading comprehension of Arab students learning has been investigated the relationship of the attitudes and cultural background of Arab students to their reading comprehension of stories. Results indicated that students scored higher on tasks of reading comprehension with texts from their own cultural setting than with texts from a culturally unfamiliar setting. Furthermore， results of the attitude questionnaire showed that motivation of Arab students to learning others was primarily instrumental rather than integrative. A conclusion of this study is that problematic social contexts negatively affect L2 learning of minority students. In order to facilitate L2 learning， L2 curricula should include L2 texts with content culturally familiar and relevant to the life of Arab learners （Ozek， 2006）.

3.2 Metacognitive Strategies

Kuhn （2000）， defined metacognition as， Enhancing （a） metacognitive awareness of what one believes and how one knows and （b） metastrategic control in application of the strategies that process new information （p. 178）. This awareness is developmental and lies on a continuum. Proficient readers use one or more metacognitive strategies to comprehend text. Metacognition can be defined as thinking about thinking. Good readers use metacognitive strategies to think about and have control over their reading. Before reading， they might clarify their purpose for reading and preview the text. During reading， they might monitor their understanding， changing their reading speed to fit the difficulty of the text and fixing any comprehension problems they have. After reading， they check their understanding of what they read. Students’metacognitive knowledge and use of metacognitive strategies can have an important influence upon their achievement.

According to Chamot and Kupper （1989）， metacognitive strategies involve thinking about the learning process， planning for learning， monitoring the learning task， and evaluating how well one has learned. Oxford （1990） proposed that metacognitive strategies include three strategy sets： Centering， arranging and planning， as well as evaluating the learning.

A similar model of metacognitive strategies proposed by Pintrich （1999） included three general types of strategies： Planning， monitoring， and regulating. Planning activities include setting goals for studying， skimming a text before reading， generating questions before reading a text.

Monitoring is an essential aspect of self-regulated learning. Weinstein and Mayer （1986） regard all metacognitive activities as partly the monitoring of comprehension where students check their understanding against some self-set goals. Monitoring activities include tracking of attention while reading a text， self-testing through the use of questions about the text material to check for understanding， etc. （Pintrich， 1999）.

Several studies have shown that all these strategies can enhance second/foreign language reading by correcting their studying behavior and repairing deficits in their understanding of the reading text （Carrell， 1998； Pintrich， 1999； Whyte， 1993）. Research evidence will do education little good if findings are not applied in classroom settings. Even though metacognitive strategies are considered to be of value for adequate text comprehension， classroom teachers often fail to teach this process （Pressley et al.， 1998）.

3.3 Compensation Strategies

Another factor resulting in successful reading is the development of vocabulary knowledge （Caverly， 1997； Yang， 2004）. However， many EFL readers often encounter the problem of unfamiliar vocabulary and unknown concepts so as to interfere with the comprehension （Zhang， 1993）. Several researchers suggest teaching students active compensation strategies to achieve comprehension（Oxford， 1990； Sinatra & Dowd， 1992 Zhang， 1993）. Sinatra and Dowd （1991） proposed a comprehension framework for the use of context clues： syntactic clues（related to grammatical structures） and semantic clues（involved intra- and inter sentence meaning relationship）. Sinatra and Dowd argued that readers should not only understand how the writer used grammar， but also use semantic clues such as restatement， use of examples and summary clues in order to guess the meaning of a new word. In addition， to guess the meaning of words intelligently， Oxford （1990） clustered 10 compensation strategies into two sets： linguistic clues （guessing meanings from suffixes， prefixes， and word order） and other clues （using text structure such as introductions， summaries， conclusions， titles， transitions， and using general background knowledge）. These decoding skills can not only help readers overcome a limited vocabulary， but also help them guess about the theme of an article. Such learning strategies can significantly increase the reading speed and raise efficiency （Winstead， 2004； Zhang， 1993）.

Awareness and the importance of teaching students multiple reading comprehension strategies are important and crucial for better and effective reading comprehension. To train students to use and transfer reading strategies to new tasks， a number of studies have suggested that reading strategy training needs to be conducted in conjunction with the regular course of instruction over an extended period of time， and teachers rather than researchers should be the deliverers of learning strategy instruction to equip readers with necessary reading skills.

4. METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES

University students in the English Dept have poor English reading ability due to many reasons but mainly to their level of reading strategy knowledge and lack of confidence in their academic achievement （Caverly， 1991）. The purpose of this study is to find out the most frequent use of reading strategies， and what are the students’ attitudes toward reading strategies.

One hundred fifty students （86 males and 71 females） majoring in English language from final stages of the study program participated in the study. Levels seven and eight of the Foreign Languages Department were chosen. The students who participated in the questionnaires have received at least four years of formal English in secondary schools before entered the university to study English language as their major. The ages of the students are from 18 to 22 years old.

The questionnaire contains 42 items， consisted of three major strategies of reading： The first strategy is cognitive（items 1 to 15） - This strategy is divided into three sets： rehearsal （items 1 to 3）， elaboration （items 4 to 9）， and organization （items 10 to 15）. The second strategy is metacognitive， which has three sets： planning （items 16 to 23， monitoring （items 24-27）， regulating （items 28 to 32）. The third strategy is compensation which linguistic（items 33 to 37）， and semantic set （items 38 to 42）. （See Appendix A）

Validity was established through the review of the items of the questionnaires by two senior professors who taught for many years in the department. Some of the items were changed and their suggestions were considered in developing the 5-point scale and to use Arabic language to explain the items to the students to avoid misunderstanding. The strategies and sets were hidden in order to give the participants focus and confidence and avoid confusion and predetermined responses

5. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Descriptive statistics， including means and standard deviations and t-test procedures from Statistic Package for Social Science for Windows （SPSS） version 21 to compute the data collected from questionnaire.

The questionnaire was designed to understand what reading strategies the students were using during their reading， the results are shown in table 1 and 2.

Analysis of 5-scale statement regarding the sets of the reading strategies provides insights on the reading strategies use by the learners. The fact that frequency of the statements changes for different reading strategies and percentages are determined during the reading process of the students. Most of the responses were ranked around 1 and 2 （strongly agree and agree）. To certain extent， most statements had high means and significant standard deviations， except 1， 17 and 35， have low means and standard deviations. （See Appendix B， for further study and examinations of the statistics of each item）

The results in Table 1， show that the most frequent use of reading strategy was found to be metacognitive （M = 3.46）， then followed by compensation strategy （M = 3.30）， and the least used was cognitive strategy （M = 3.22）.

I conducted the independent samples t-tests to investigate whether there are differences between male and female students on the three major reading strategy uses （categories of cognitive， metacognitive， and compensation strategies）.（ see table 2）.

Tables 2， above， indicates that average of females is higher than those of the boys in all the reading strategies.

An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare reading strategies for 157 University students（N=157）. When analyzing gender differences in reading strategies a statistical significant was obtained in the scores for females who used Metacognitive strategies for reading. （M = 1.155， s = .83837）， t-test （155） = 2.160， p = 0.032， α = .05.

These results suggest that females use a metacognitive approach to reading strategies more than their male counterparts， as shown in table 3.

Table 5， 6， 7， and 8： Reveal that there are no significant differences among the sets within the strategies. Nevertheless， the sets of the metacognitive strategy still maintain significance in planning，

monitoring and regulating the information their reading comprehension strategy. The tables below provide insights on the strategies use of the students.

Charts 1， above， shows females appear to prefer rehearsal cognitive reading strategies more than their male counterparts. However， virtually no difference is preferred for elaboration or organizational cognitive strategies.

Figure 2， as illustrated above， that it was the reading preference for metacognitive reading strategy. A slight preference of regulating reading strategy is shown； however this is not a statistically significant affect.

Table 9， shows the set of the complementation reading strategies.

Figure 3， as shown above， male students displayed a lower Linguistic learning strategy， however no statistical difference was observed as graphed above.

CONCLUSION

Based on the discussion， it becomes evident that several factors contribute to favour the metacognitive subcategories. The reader’s purposes were clearly shown in the topic or the heading of the passage. Title headings helped the students to answer more comprehension questions clearly， （statement 16， of planning）， the motivation in the using the pictures. Pictures in the text have been recognized as having a positive effect in planning of the metacognitive strategies （statement 17）， the interaction between the reader and the text， as shown in statement 23， monitoring is another important aspect which was clearly indicated specially by the female students （statements 24-27）.

Investigating the question about the challenges students face in reading， the researcher will point out to the following：

The study showed students preferred the metacognitive strategies and have shown less interest in others. Teachers should train students into other strategies and make them adopt practices like making inference， note-taking， elaboration， and other cognitive strategies.

Students should be given opportunity to evaluate and their reading performance to overcome reading difficulties. It is the task of the teachers to provide the students with feedback on their use of different reading materials， and to train them to use other strategies techniques to make it explicit to help poor readers to do better.

Vocabulary has been the most hindering factor to the students’ comprehension. Students were looking for more opportunities to read as much as possible using the monitoring technique of the metacognitive strategies. Teachers should put the research findings into practice and increase the important role of these reading strategies. To further improve students reading strategies， reading should be related in context to the skills training and language background.

The present study has revealed that in all the substrategies， except the linguistics of the compensation， female students were better readers than the male students. This would put in front of the teachers and writers to give the males more attention to improve their English language reading comprehension， to choose readings that are interesting and less difficult and more familiar to their needs.

REFERENCES

Al-Mahrooqi， Rahma， Shahid Abrar-Ul-Hassan， & Charles Cofie Asante （2012）. Analyzing the use of motivational strategies by EFL teachers In Oman. Malaysian Journal of ELT Research， 8（1）， 37-76.

Anderson， N. （1999）. Exploring second language reading： Issues and strategies. Toronto， Canada： Heinle & Heinle.

Baker， L.， & Brown， A. L. （1984）. Metacognitive skills in reading. In P. D. Pearson （Ed.）， Handbook of reading research. New York： Longman.

Barnett， M. A. （1989）. More than meets the eye. Englewood Cliffs， NJ： Prentice Hall Regents.

Brown， H. Douglas.（ 1994）. Principles of language learning and teaching （3rd ed.）. Englewood Cliffs， NJ： Prentice Hall Regents

Carrell， P. L. （1998）. Metacognitive awareness and second language reading. The Modern Language Journal， 73（2）.

Caverly， D. （1997）. Teaching reading in a learning assistance center. （ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED 478 373）

Chamot， A. U.， & Kupper， L. （1989）. Learning strategies in foreign language instruction. Foreign Language Annals， 22（1）， 13-24.

Chang， B.， & Huang， C. （2001）. Language learning strategies and English proficiency in Taiwanese university of technology students： A case study. The 16th National Congress of Technological and Vocational Education （Vol. 16）.

Ellis， R. （1994）. Second language acquisition .Oxford： Oxford University Press.

Gardner， H. （1985）. The mind’s new science： A history of the cognitive revolution. New York： Basic Books.

Gardner， R. （1985）. Social psychology and second language learning： The role of attitude and motivation. London： UK.Edward Arnold.

Gardner， R. and Smythe， P. （1975）. Second language acquisition： A social psychological approach. Research Bulletin， （332）. Department of Psychology， University of Western Ontario.

Goodman， K. （1998）. The reading process. In P. L. Carrell， J. Devine， & D.E. Heskey （Eds.）， Interactive approaches to second language reading. Cambridge： Cambridge University Press.

Goodman， Kenneth S. （1986）. What s whole in whole language（1st ed.）. Portsmouth， NH： Heinemann.

Kamil， Mosenthal， Pearson， & Barr. （2000）. Handbook of Reading Research： NewYork： Routledge.

Kuhn， Deanna. （2000）. Psychological Science， Vol. 9， No. 5 pp. 178-181. Sage Publications， Inc.

Lin， C （ 2002）. Lexicon-driven segmentation and recognition of handwritten character strings for Japanese address reading. Volume： 24

Lynch & Hudson， （1991）. Lynch， B. & T. Hudson （1988）. EST reading. In M. Celce-Murcia （Ed.）， Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Boston： Heinle & Heinle.

Matsumura， Y. （2010）. Factors influencing the lexical inference of Japanese EFL learners. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Temple University， USA.

O’Sullivan， A. （2010）. Reading and Arab college students： Issues in the United Arab Emirates Higher Colleges of Technology. /conference/pp/proceedings/sullivan. pdf

Oxford， R. L. （1990）. Language learning strategies： What every teacher should know. Toronto， Canada： Heinle & Heinle.

Oxford， R. L. （1993）. Research on second language learning strategies. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics， 13（5）， 175-187.

Ozek， R. （2006）. A Study on the Use of Cognitive Reading Strategies by ELT Students. The Asian EFL Journal. Professional Teachers Articles.

Pintrich， P. R. （1999）. The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self-regulated learning. International Journal of Educational Research， 31， 459-470.

Pintrich， P. R.， & Garcia， T. （1991）. Student goal orientation and self-regulation in the college classroom. In M. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich （Eds.）， Advances in motivation and achievement： Goals and self-regulatory processes. Greenwich， CT： JAI Press.

Pressley et al .（1998）. Comprehension Instruction： What makes sense now， what might. Make sense soon. Handbook of Reading Research， III.

Schoonen， R.， Hulstijn， J， & Bossers， B. （1998）. Metacognitive and language-specific knowledge in native and foreign language reading comprehension： An Empirical study among Dutch students in Grades 6， 8， and 10. Language Learning， 48（1）， 71-106.

Schoonen， R.， van Gelderan， A.， de Glopper， K.， Hulstijn， J.， Simis， A.， Snellings， P.， & Stevenson， M. （2003）. First language and second language writing： The role of linguistic knowledge， speed of processing， and metacognitive knowledge. Language Learning， 53（1）， 165-202.

Sinatra & Dowd， （ 1992）. Using syntactic and semantic clues to learn vocabulary. Journal of Reading.

Skuttnab-Kangas， T. （1988）. Multilingualism and the education of minority children. In T. Skuttnab-Kangas， & J. Cummins （Eds.）， Minority education （pp. 9-44）. Clevedon： Multilingual Matters.

Skuttnab-Kangas， T. （2000）. Linguistic genocide in education or worldwide diversity in human rights Mahwah， NJ.： Lawrence Erlbaum.

Snellings， P.， & Stevenson， M. （2003）. First language and second language writing： The role of linguistic knowledge， speed of processing， and metacognitive knowledge. Language Learning， 53（1）， 165-202.

Swain， Merrill， & Lapkin， Sharon （2005）， The evolving sociopolitical context of immersion education in Canada： some implications for program development Article first published online： International Journal of Applied Linguistics， （June）， 169186.

Weinstein， C. E.， & Mayer， R. E. （1986， Nov. 4）. The teaching of learning strategies. Innovation Abstracts， 5（32）.

Whyte （1993）. Metacognitive protocols： A tool for second language research. Paper presented at the 27th Annual TESOL Convention， Atlanta， Georgia.

Williams， M.， Burden， R.， & Al-Baharna， S. （1997）. Making sense of success and failure： The role of the individual in motivation theory. In Z. Dornyei & Schmidt， R. （Eds.）， Motivation and second language acquisition （pp.173-186） Honolulu： University of Hawaii Press.

Winstead， L. （2004）. Increasing academic motivation and cognition in reading， writing， and mathematics： Meaningmaking strategies. Educational Research Quarterly， 28（2）， 30-49.

Winstead， L. （2004）. Increasing academic motivation and cognition in reading， writing， and mathematics： Meaningmaking strategies. Educational Research Quarterly， 28（2）， 30-49.

Yang， L. （1995）. Effective awareness-raising in language learning strategy training. Paper presented at the 29th Annual Convention & Exposition of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages， Long Beach， California， USA.

Yang， L. L. （2004）. The development of a validated perceived self-efficacy scale on English reading strategies. Journal of Education & Psychology， 27（2）， 377-398.

Zhang， Z. （1992）. English reading strategies. Beijing： Transportation Press.

Zhang， Z. （1993， Nov.）. Literature review on reading strategy research. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association， Biloxi， Mississippi， USA. 41.