时间：2022-10-08 06:36:28
Introduction
Canada was first and foremost a British colony. It was part of the British Empire, and with that went a long tradition of British superiority. The earliest Canadian immigration policies encouraged British immigration. Britons were ready-made Canadian citizens. Americans, with their experience in the North American plains and similar background to Canadians, also become a favoured immigrant. But the Canadian immigration policy went beyond encouraging Britons and Americans to come to Canada.
In Canada’s first years as a country, there was a need for labour and for settlement. The Ministry of the Interior tried to recruit from not only the United Kingdom and the United States, but also from central Europe, where experienced farmers could be found. There was some migration from Asia and to a degree it was encouraged. However when the labour need slowed, restrictions were set against people from Asia.
The twentieth century restricted immigrations even further. The new minister was more conservative and immigrations from continental Europe was not recruited with the same vigour that the previous administration used. Immigration from outside of Europe was severely limited.
The years in between the World Wars featured a buoyant economy and a severe depression. Immigration suffered when the economy suffered.
The post World War II years brought in influx of immigrants from countries that were not considered traditional for Canada. The appearance of central and eastern Europeans allowed Canada to expand their immigration policy to be less based on race and nationality.
Since the 1970s, Canada has reformed the regulations of immigrations. Instead of a policy based on race and racism, it is a non-discriminatory points based system. However, there elements of racism and old preferences remain.
Pre-1900
In the late nineteenth century, immigration into Canada was restricted by an economic downturn. However, by the time Wilfrid Laurier was elected in 1896, the economy was better, European population was expanding and space for new American farmland was dwindling. All of these factors combined to make Canada a prime place to attract new immigrants.[1] Initially, Canadian immigration was based on a need to fill the empty Prairies and fulfill labour needs. The population of Canada in 1891 was 4,833,000.[2] A higher population was needed to jumpstart the Canadian Prairies into economically productive areas and to fill the manufacturing sectors with labourers who were willing to work long hours for less pay.
In 1896, Clifford Sifton was appointed Minister of the Interior. Sifton believed that immigration to the Western provinces was the key to Canadian prosperity. In order to promote immigration, Sifton updated the Dominion Lands Act. The Dominion Lands Act (1872) was legislation built to entice European farmer settlers.[3] It promised any male who is the head of a family, or 21 years of age to one quarter section of unappropriated Dominion lands for the purpose of securing a homestead. There were several regulations and requirements, including if he or his widow or heirs have lived on the land for three years and if there is proof of actual settlement and cultivation that has been corroborated by witnesses on oath.[4] Sifton simplified this process by changing the required cultivation to thirty acres and building a permanent dwelling, as well as the three year habitation requirement. This allowed immigrants to secure their land more quickly.[5]
However, “immigrants” did not mean any human being. Even though the United States was once seen as a competitor for immigration, Sifton tried to actively recruit Americans because they were familiar with the demands of the Americas. Also those Americans that did settle the Prairies came with machinery, livestock and capital which helped them settle more quickly than other immigrants. But even the definition of Americans was limited. The campaign for American farmers did not include black Americans. Although never legally excluded, administrators rejected most applications submitted by black Americans.[6]
When the immigration needs of the West were not being satisfied, Sifton expanded his recruiting beyond the United States and British Isles to continental Europe. Despite the reluctance of English speaking Canadians to admit people from central Europe, Sifton persisted in the recruitment of immigrants from the continent. The government tried to promote bloc settlements of different ethnic groups, believing that it would attract more members of that group. The Ukrainians were the first group from that area of Europe to come to Canada in large numbers. Between 1891 and World War I, nearly two hundred thousand Ukrainians had settled in Canada.[7] Germans were another group that found success in the Prairies. In the first ten years of the twentieth century, over one hundred thousand Germans immigrated to Saskatchewan.[8] These immigrants were ideal for Sifton’s purpose: they came from farming areas and had large families.
Not all Europeans were wanted in Canada. Some people, like Italians, were considered to be ill-suited for pioneering, and were thought to thrive better in urban environments. Many Italians who did come to Canada found word in the railway, mining and other intensive labour areas. Most Italian immigrants were men, who either returned to Italy after working in Canada for a few years, or sent for their wives to join them. However, Italian communities were still based in urban areas, working in cities, rather than on farms.[9] Some Russians came to Canada, but they had trouble assimilating in the Prairies. In order to secure land, an oath allegiance to Canada was needed to secure the land. Some Russians refused to take the oath (or participate with any level of government) and others took the oath and integrated themselves into Canadian settlement. This led to fractions within the community and some extremist groups emerged.[10] Not all Britons were welcomed by Canadians. Some Britons, in particular those from middle and upper classes, were disliked because they treated Canada like a colony and expected special treatment.[11]
Due to its proximity to the Pacific Ocean, British Columbia was a natural point for immigration from Asia. The first settlers from Japan came in 1877, but they did not arrive in significant levels until after 1900.[12] However, Chinese settlers were more welcome in the nineteenth century. When Canada’s cheap labour needs were not met, the government began to recruit immigrants that were not on preferred list. In the 1880s, this meant immigrants from China to help build the railroad. After the railroad was completed, and the cheap labour was no longer needed, the welcoming sentiments towards the Chinese immigrants changed.[13] When the railroad was nearly complete more restrictive legislation was passed to keep Asians from immigrating to Canada in great numbers[14] to preserve the labour market for Canadians.
The Chinese Immigration Act was enacted in 1885. It placed a head tax on all Chinese males entering Canada. Women and children were not permitted to enter. The rate was set at fifty dollars in 1885. This number rose to one hundred dollars in 1900 and to five hundred dollars in 1903.[15] Five hundred dollars in 1903 would amount to approximately $12,000 today.[16]
Immigration in Canada`s earliest years was a mix of acceptance and rejection. There was a desire to preserve the character of the Canadian people and a fear that immigrants who were too different would change this character. There was also a belief that some groups of people simply were not suited to Canadian living. Even the approved immigrants who were able to gain entry into Canada did not always go where the government wanted them to. Despite Sifton`s recruitment to find European farmers, demand in urban areas was booming.[17] Many immigrants who came to Canada never left the port cities that they entered. Canada`s policy during this period was to ensure growth in the farming areas and in the needed labour markets, and hopefully the immigrants who fulfilled these duties were British, American or central European.
1900 ? 1918
By the early 1900s, immigration in Canada was booming. In the first ten years of the twentieth century, nearly two million immigrants would make Canada their home.[18] The population rose from 5.3 million in 1901 to 7.2 million in 1911.[19] These large numbers belie the strict exclusionary provisions within the Canadian immigration process. The years before the First World War would further strengthen the exclusions.
Frank Oliver replaced Clifford Sifton as of Minister of the Interior and Superintendent General of Indian Affairs in 1905. Oliver disapproved of Sifton’s lax immigration policy. Namely, he disapproved of immigration from Slavic nations.[20] It was Oliver’s intention to fill the West with people who had the same aspirations and views of Canadians.[21] While Sifton preferred farmers from central Europe over Britons from urban areas, Oliver preferred Britons above all others. His second choice was Americans.[22] Oliver’s intention was to restrict immigration into Canada as far as he could.
In 1906 the Immigration Act was enacted. This Act directly barred people from entering Canada. Those with a history of mental illness or a contagious disease, beggars, criminals, prostitutes were all prohibited.[23] The Immigration Act also increased the government’s power to deport certain classes of immigrants. The Governor in Council could proclaim in order, whenever he felt it necessary, to prohibit any specified class of immigrants.[24] There was a lot of debate over this Act in the House of Commons. A particular argumentative topic was a head tax to be levied on immigrants. Conservatives supported the head tax to ensure that Canada received the best kind of men. Liberals were opposed, as they did not want to limit immigration. Some sectors needed a constant influx of people willing to work long hours for low wages.[25] The only head tax that was collected was the one already in place for Chinese immigrants.
Canada wanted to eliminate the migration from Asian countries. However, ties to particular nations made it impossible to ban immigration from certain areas. Britain and Japan were allies at the beginning of the twentieth century, so any Canadian action against Japanese immigration had to be done in a way that would not affect British ? Japanese relations. Other than not wanting to offend Britain, Japan also had the potential to become a trading partner with Canada. It was therefore ideal to co-operate with Japan.[26] By 1900, Japanese were settling in Canada in appreciable numbers[27] and Canada wanted to stem this flow. The solution, in 1907, was the Gentleman’s Agreement with Japan. In the Agreement, Canada agreed not to limit Japanese immigration and Japan agreed to voluntarily restrict the number of people who would emigrate to Canada.[28] Japan permitted 400 men a year to emigrate to Canada. This did not include women, many of whom left Japan to join their husbands in Canada. In 1928 the Agreement was revised to 150 people.[29]
Canada wanted to limit immigration from India and the East Indies. In an attempt to stem immigration, the lives of Indian immigrants were made difficult. Indian men were denied the right to vote and both men and women were barred from certain professions. However, these provisions did not dismay Indian immigration. In British Columbia (where the heaviest immigration was concentrated), over 5000 immigrated between 1904 and 1907.[30] Canada tried to negotiate an agreement with India to limit immigration similar to the Gentleman`s Agreement that Canada held with Japan. India did not want to be restricted in that manner. As India was part of the British Empire, Canada could not directly limit Indian immigration. The solution was the Continuous Journey Stipulation which amended the Immigration Act (1906) in 1908. The Continuous Journey Stipulation prohibited entry from people who arrived at Canadian boarders, other than those who were on a continuous journey from their country of origin (a country a person was native to or citizen of). The only company that provided transportation from India to Canada was the Canadian Pacific Railway. The government of Canada issued the Canadian Pacific Railway orders not to sell any “through tickets” to Canada from India.[31] This effectively stopped Indian and East Indian immigration. In 1907 and 1908, 4,757 East Indians immigrated to Canada. The Continuous Journey Stipulation went into effect in 1909. In 1909, only 6 East Indians were admitted to Canada. Even a few years later, the situation had not improved. In 1913, only 29 East Indians were allowed entry.[32] This Stipulation was enforced by the Canadian government in a blatantly racist way.
In the summer of 1914, the Komagata Maru Incident occurred. This was an attempt by East Indians to challenge Canada’s racist policy. In May of that year, a ship (the Komagata Maru) arrived in Vancouver, carrying 376 (who were mostly Sikh) passengers. The ship had made numerous stops along the way to pick up passengers. In accordance with the Continuous Journey Stipulation, Canada denied the passengers entry.[33] The ship refused to leave the harbour until the passengers were allowed into Canada. After two months of a standoff, and in face of starvation, the passengers agreed that a test case would go before an Immigration Board of Enquiry. A young famer was heard and deemed inadmissible because he violated the continuous-journey regulation. The B.C. Court of Appeal upheld a lower court refusal to order the farmer’s release. With this ruling, the passengers realized they would not be granted entry into Canada. The two month standoff ended with the Komagata Maru being escorted out of the Vancouver Harbour by a naval ship. Only a handful of passengers were allowed to remain, and all of them were previous residents of British Columbia.[34]
This incident shows how committed Canada was to their racist policy. Indians should have qualified for immigration because of India was part of the British Empire. Colonial South Americans were desired because of their country`s place in the Empire. Yet Indians were denied entry because of their ethnic background. The immigrants who were already settled within British Columbia were proof that Indian immigrants were suited to the Canadian climate and geography. The Komagata Maru Incident was not the only example of racist views affecting the Canadian immigration policy. In 1911, Immigration Branch officials led an anti-black immigration movement in the West. Their purpose was to legislate an exclusion ordinance against black settlers (in particular from the United States). However, the general election in September of that year threw the Liberals out of office before the intended Order in Council could be implemented.[35]
Four years after the first Immigration Act, another one was ratified in 1910. The 1910 Act built upon the themes of the 1906 Act. A Canadian citizen was defined as a person born in Canada, or a British subject who has Canadian domicile, or a person naturalized under the laws of Canada.[36] The British subjects had fewer restrictions because Canada was still a vital part of the British Empire. There were the same prohibited classes from the 1906 Act, plus those that were given charitable money for the purpose of enabling them to qualify for landing in Canada.[37] This restriction limited the perceived quality of people would be permitted entry.[38] The Act prohibited the permanent landing in Canada immigrants belong to any race deemed unsuited to the climate or requirements of Canada. It also prohibited immigrants of any specified class, occupation or character, as defined by the immigration officials.[39] The immigration officials had a lot of discretion in deciding who was worthy to be let into Canada.
This Act was the first immigration legislation to list race as a prohibitive legal category.[40] In 1919, this clause was amended to include nationality as a prohibited characteristic as well.[41] It was the policy of the Ministry to admit immigrants from certain countries. There was a list of the preferred nations to encourage immigration for farmers, farm labourers, and female domestic servants. The nations were: the United States, the United Kingdom and certain Northern European countries (France, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Iceland).[42] Immigrants from other European nations who were not on the list were still admitted. But they were not actively recruited as the listed countries were.
The Naturalization Act (1914) proved a means for immigrants to become Canadian citizens. Non-British subjects had to be naturalised before they could obtain Canadian citizenship. An immigrant had to be domiciled (a resident) in Canada for five years before he or she could apply for citizenship. A British subject from part of the Empire was exempt from the naturalization process. He or she only had to reside in Canada for one year before qualifying for full rights of a Canadian national.[43]
Immigration to Canada began to slow in the pre World War I years. In 1913, immigration reached a record high, at four hundred thousand.[44] In 1915, immigration plunged to 36,665. Three-quarters of this number were immigrants arriving from the United States. This was the lowest level immigration had been at since 1898.[45] Immigration trends follow the economical and political trends of the world.
1918 ? 1945
The years between the two World Wars saw a great many changes for the Canadian immigration process. The population of Canada rose from 8.8 million in 1921, to 10.4 million in 1931 and 11.5 million in 1941.[46]
The ranking system of desirable nations changed. Germany and other central and eastern European nations were deems enemy aliens and immigration from these areas were restricted.[47] Even the immigrants from these nations that were already settled in Canada were considered problematic. Some government officials, including the Minister of Militia and Defence, even suggested that those immigrants born in Germany, Austro-Hungary or any other enemy-alien state should be encouraged to move to the United States. Other than problems from the government, many Canadians treated these immigrants with open hostility. The Wartime Elections Act (1917) withdrew the right to vote from Canadians who had been born in enemy countries and had become naturalized subjects after March 31, 1902.[48]
For the third time in thirteen years, another major change to the Immigration Act was passed in 1919. This change was purported to be an amendment rather than a new Act.[49] A significant change was the prohibited class of immigrants was expanded. There was more concern about the political upheaval, as advocates of force or violence against organized governments, members of societies opposed to organized governments, and enemy aliens were added to the prohibited list.[50] These concerns clearly reflect Canada’s experience in the war.
In 1923 the Chinese Immigration Act, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Act, replaced the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885. Up until 1923, even though the Chinese head tax policy remained in place, immigration was not sufficiently curtailed. Chinese immigration continued.[51] This new Act eliminated the head tax. However, it also virtually eliminated Chinese immigration altogether. It applied to people of Chinese origin or descent, regardless of current allegiance or citizenship. Entry into Canada was restricted to government representatives (and their servants), children born in Canada who were of Chinese descent who were being educated aboard, students attending Canadian schools and universities and merchants. [52] This restrictive list did not allow for any immigrants to enter into Canada. It ensured that all business with people from China would not stop, but the migration would. This new act virtually suspended Chinese immigration until it 1947, when it was repealed.[53] The combination of Chinese Exclusion Act, the Gentleman’s Agreement, and the Continuous Journey Stipulation proved to be an effective barrier so that almost no Asian emigrated to Canada until post World War II.[54]
The Great Depression stifled immigration. There was no need for labour. Canadians were willing to work the jobs that were available. The lack of a need for labour meant that fewer immigrants were permitted entry into Canada.[55] Immigration further slowed with the outbreak of World War II. A global war limited the practicality of migration. Immigration reached an all time low in 1942.[56]
Although Britons were still Canada’s first choice of immigrants, British migration would never reach the pre-War World I levels. Also, most of those Britons who did immigrate did not go into the agricultural section.[57] However, despite this drop in numbers, most of the immigration during this period was from the traditional countries. Two notable exceptions were Russian Mennonites and Jews.
Mackenzie King’s Liberal party was elected in 1922. They rescinded a regulation banning pacifist sects. This more tolerant view led to over two hundred thousand Russian Mennonites settling in Canada during the 1920s. However, unlike earlier Mennonite communities, they were not allowed to settle in blocs.[58]
Although the Department of Immigration and Colonization were traditional hostile to the immigration of those of Jewish faith, 40,000 were able to immigrate to Canada in the years between the wars. Among these immigrants were 3,000 refugees from Russia. The Canadian government refused to allow more Jewish refugees from Europe to entry Canada.[59]
1945 ? 1971
The population of Canada expanded in the post World War II years. By 1951, the population was at 14 million. But 1961 this number increased to 18.2 million and to 21.6 in 1971.[60] This period was marked by a great flow in immigration and the beginning of a non-discriminatory system.
The Canadian Citizenship Act was brought into force in 1947. This legislation equalized the waiting time of immigrants who were and were not British subjects. Immigrants would not qualify for full citizenship until they had been a resident in Canada for five years and taken out citizenship papers. There were two exceptions. A British subject already in Canada and someone who served in the Canadian forces only had to wait one year. Citizenship was not permanent though. It could be lost, if, for instance, citizenship of another country was adopted. If the immigrant living in Canada did not want to take out the citizenship papers, but they had resided in Canada for twenty years and spoke French of English, that was sufficient to quality him or her for citizenship. [61]
Many of the immigrants that came into Canada during this period were from the now desolate areas of Europe. Some immigrants came to Canada to take refuge from the chaos of their nations of origin. 1946 saw the arrival of Polish war veterans who did not want to be repatriated into their homeland which was now occupied by the Soviet Union. These men contracted to work on a Canadian farm for a year before they could move freely in Canada.[62] Other than the Polish immigrants, there was high numbers of Britons and Hungarians entering Canada as well.[63]
Despite the influx of new immigrants, there was still a system of racism in place. Migrants from the British Commonwealth and the United States were given preferential treatment.[64] Prime Minister Mackenzie King gave a Statement on Immigration in 1947. He asserted that in order to preserve the fundamental character of Canada, immigration from Asia would continue to be restricted until alternative means of effective control could be worked out.[65]
The Immigration Act of 1952 followed the premise of its predecessors. The goal was to preserve the existing character of the Canadian population.[66] The Governor in Council had the power of selection of admission. They could prohibit anyone or any group if they felt that group/person would not fit into Canadian society.[67] Under the prohibited classes of immigrants, the term “race” was changed to “ethnic group.”[68]
By 1957, the type of immigrate that Canada received had changed. The majority of immigration switched from the United Kingdom and the United States to continental Europe.[69] After 1957, immigration levels dropped. This trend continued until 1962.[70]
Ellen Fariclough was the first woman to serve as a federal Cabinet Member. She presided over Citizenship and Immigration. In 1962 she introduced in the House new regulations that almost eliminated racial discrimination as a major feature of Canada’s immigration policy. Any unsponsored immigrant, regardless of colour, race or national origin, with the requisite education, skill or other qualification was suitable for admission if:
1) He or she has a specific job waiting in Canada or could support his or her self until found employment
2) Was not a criminal or terrorist
3) Did not suffer from a disease that endangers the public health
There was only one remaining part of the policy that was racist. Immigrants from Europe and the Americas were able to sponsor a wider range of relatives.[71]
The points system was introduced in the late 1960s. The purpose of this system was to establish an objective assessment system for the admission of immigrants.[72] The immigration officers assigned points to a fixed maximum in several categories, including education, employment opportunities in Canada, the individual’s personal characteristics, age, and degree of fluency in English or French.[73] There was emphasis placed on skills in relation to what the Canadian labour market needed. The assessment was based on 100 points. In its initial years, if the applicant received more than 50 points, they were considered likely to settle successfully.[74]
Despite the effort to form a merit based system, racial discrimination persisted. Immigration offices outside of Canada still needed to expand so that the right of review was equal for prospective immigrants regardless of country of origin.[75] From 1951 to 1969, the largest concentration of resources for immigration went to the recruitment of immigrants from developed countries. These developed countries were the traditional source countries. Canada had no intention in abandoning the pursuit of British immigration.[76]
The change from immigration based on race and nationality to a more merit based system did not come about because of popular demand from Canadians. Rather, it has been hypothesized that this change came about because otherwise it would limit Canada in its relation with the UN and the Commonwealth.[77]
1971 - present
In the years since 1971, Canada has seen a radical shift in the nationality of the immigrant. The shift moved away from the traditional sources and towards immigrants from less developed countries. The latest Immigration Act (1952) needed to be updated.
Canada had suffered a decline in immigration from traditional source countries. However, there was still a need for immigration. To solve this problem, Canada needed to open its gates wider, and it could best achieve this by enacting new legislation.[78]
The Immigration Act (1952) had some faults that needed to be corrected. The Act made no mention of the principles that should govern the selection of would be immigrants. It did not reflect the fact that s. 95 of the Constitution Act recognizes immigration as a joint federal and provincial responsibility. Unlike the reforms brought about in the previous decade, there was more social and political pressure to eradicate over racism in the Canadian immigration process. Canada had a new multicultural policy.[79]
The Immigration Act (1976) came into force in 1978. It focused on who was allowed into Canada, rather than who should be kept out. The Act spelled out the fundamental principles and objectives of Canadian immigration policy.[80] There was a provision within the Act that required the government to plan immigration by setting target numbers for different classifications of immigrants. There were four basic categories of individuals eligible for landed immigration status:
1) Family class (immediate family and dependent children, dependent parents and grandparents),
2) Humanitarian class (refugees and displaced people),
3) Independent class
4) Assisted relatives
Unlike the old section 38(c) or section 61(g), section 3(f) prohibited from discrimination based on race, national/ethnic origin, colour, religion or sex.[81] This Act received almost unanimous support from all parties in the House. It was also supported by the public and lauded by the press.[82]
However, despite the 1967 point system, and the new Immigration Act, racism still persisted. In 1981, there were five immigration offices in the United Kingdom, but only three in South America and five in Africa (two of which were located in South Africa). The United States had ten offices, and India (with twice the population of the United States in 1981) had one office. This distribution of immigration offices followed the old preferred countries.[83] Immigration was still being controlled.
In 1966, 87% of immigrants entering Canada were of European origin. Four years later, 50% of immigrants came from outside Europe. By 1997, immigrants from third world countries made up two-thirds of immigration.[84] In the period between 1991 and 2001, the highest levels of immigration came from Eastern Asia, followed by Southern Asia, South-East Asia and Eastern Europe.[85]
Conclusion
In Canada, immigration law has moved from a needs based system with preference to Americans and Britons, to an explicitly restrictive policy, to a non-discriminatory system. The restrictive clause of the 1910, 1919, and 1952 Acts (section 38(c)) has been removed. Since the 1960s, there has been a shift towards a merit based treated of all application applying for admission. This treatment boasts of being universal and non-discriminatory. The principle of equality was embodied in section 3(f) of the Immigration Act (1976).
[1] Knowles, Valerie, Forging our Legacy (Canada: Public Works and Government Services, 2000) at 8 [Knowles].
[2] Information Canada, Immigration and population statistics (Ottawa, Manpower and Immigration, 1974) at 5 [Population statistics].
[3] Dominion Lands Act, R.S.C. 1872, c. 23, online: Early Canadiana Online <.
[17] Knowles, supra note 1 at 27.
[18] Population statistics, supra note 2 at 8.
[19] Ibid. at 5.
[20]Knowles, supra note 1 at 31.
[21] Ibid. at 32.
[22] Ibid.
[23] Immigration Act, R.S.C. 1906, c. 19, online: Early Canadiana Online </view/ 9_07188/2> at 26-29 [IA 1906].
[24] Ibid. at 30
[25] Knowles, supra note 1 at 33.
[26] Jakubowski , supra note 13 at 14.
[27] Knowles, supra note 1 at 25.
[28] Jakubowski , supra note 13 at 14.
[29] Knowles, supra note 1 at 25.
[30] Ibid. at 26.
[31] Jakubowski, supra note 13 at 14.
[32] Jakubowski, supra note 13 at 15.
[33] Ibid.
[34] Knowles, supra note 1 at 38.
[35] Knowles, supra note 1 at 11.
[36] Immigration Act, R.S.C. 1910, c. 27, online: Early Canadiana Online </view/9_07184 /2> at 2(f) [IA 1910].
[37] Ibid. at 3.
[38] Though I don`t know how the Immigration Officials would know if an immigrant was given charitable money, unless it was disclosed to them.
[39] IA 1910, supra note 36 at 38(c).
[40] Jakubowski , supra note 13 at 15.
[41] Ibid.
[42] Ibid. at 16.
[43] Knowles, supra note 1 at 56.
[44] Ibid. at 40.
[45] Ibid. at 46.
[46]Population statistics, supra note 2 at 5.
[47] Knowles, supra note 1 at 46.
[48] Ibid. at 148.
[49] An Act to amend the Immigration Act, S.C. 1919, c. 25 online: Early Canadiana Online <www.canadiana. org/view/9_08048/2> [IA 1919].
[50] IA 1919, supra note 29 at 3(6).
[51] Jakubowski , supra note 13 at 14.
[52]Chinese Immigration Act, R.S.C. 1923, c. 38, online: Early Canadiana Online </view /9_08043/2> at 5.
[53] Knowles, supra note 1 at 53.
[54] Jakubowski , supra note 13 at 15.
[55] Knowles, supra note 1 at 52.
[56] Ibid. at 55.
[57] Ibid. at 53.
[58] Ibid.
[59] Ibid. at 54.
[60] Population statistics, supra note 2 at 5.
[61] Knowles, supra note 1 at 65.
[62] Ibid. at 67.
[63] Ibid. at 75.
[64] Knowles, supra note 1 at 68.
[65] Jakubowski, supra note 13 at 17.
[66] Ibid.
[67] Knowles, supra note 1 at 73.
[68] Immigration Act, R.S.C. 1952, c. 42, online: Early Canadian Online </view/9_08041/2> at 61(g)(i).
[69] Knowles, supra note 1 at 76.
[70] Ibid.
[71] Knowles, supra note 1 at 81-2.
[72] Jakubowski , supra note 13 at 18.
[73] Knowles, supra note 1 at 84.
[74] Jakubowski, supra note 13 at 18.
[75] Ibid.
[76] Jakubowski, supra note 13 at 19.
[77] Ibid. at 18.
[78] Ibid. at 19.
[79] Ibid.
[80] Knowles, supra note 1 at 86.
[81]Jakubowski, supra note 13 at 19.
[82] Knowles, supra note 1 at 87.
[83] Jakubowski, supra note 13 at 20.
[84] Ibid. at 10.
[85] “Immigration population by place of birth and period of immigration”, online: Statistics Canada <www40. statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/demo24a-eng.htm>.